Paper-IV-Social-Economic-and-Administrative-History-of-the-Marathas-English-Version-munotes (2024)

History of Maratha

2 original material like Bakhars, Sanads, letters and other state papers in his journal ‘Kavyetihas Samgraha’ for more eleven years during the nineteenth century. There is much more them contribution of the ‘Bharat Itihas Sanshodhan Mandal’, Pune to this regard. In 1910, Rajwade founded this institution and began to publish several reports and journals in Marathi. They are considered as an important source material of the study of Maratha history. Historians like Thakore, Rawlinson, Patwardhan and many other Indian and Western historians tried their level best to amass the source material of Maratha history. Regarding the source material of the Maratha history, there has been ample documentary record of the Peshwa period where as the period of Shivaji is concerned there is much scarcity of the source material. There are several reasons for this scarcity of source material as the period of Shivaji was a formative period of the Maratha history. The rulers never spared any time for maintaining any records. These rulers were to fight against the enemies from the north and the south. In this state of affairs, whatever was available they got destroyed. The general illiteracy and lack of printing presses contributed to the apathy of written documentary evidences. Naturally, paucity of source material regarding the Royal period is there. Even then the available sources of Maratha history can be studied as under: - 1.2 MARATHA SOURCES There are several official papers, diaries, accounts, Shakavalies and various tables which form an important source material of Maratha history. The Bakhar has proved useful itself as important document in the construction of Maratha history. The Bakhar means to tell the news or record of happenings. The Bakhar is also called as biography of eminent state persons of the Maratha period. Such eminent persons only ordered to write Bakhars, which naturally became little more eulogy of these people. It is said that it was the order of the day of the Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century India and considered such record as a source of writing of history. V.K. Rajwade and S.N. Joshi say that Bakhars are written in Modi script of Marathi Language after the period of Yadavas. Generally, some historians are critical about the Bakhars as they are based on hearsay and secondary information and cannot be relied upon them. Dr. Herwadkar says that Bakhars deal with historical and political matters and resemble with history. (The main task of the historian has been to interpret the fact and fiction scientifically to convey the people the prowess and spirit of their kings and heroes of the past to inspire-them for nationalism.) Bakhars are conveniently studied as follows: 1. Sabhasad Bakhar:- This is the prime and most important source of Maratha history. It was written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, a minister of Chhatrapati Rajaram at Jinji in 1694. Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad has described the following events detail, as the position of Maloji, the grandfather of shivaji, circ*mstances during the time of birth of Shivaji, Shivaji's initial campaigns, the Abzal khan episode, Shaiste Khan's attack munotes.in

Sour ces of Maratha History:
Indian Sources
of work and economy

3 on Poona, Diler Khan and siege of Purandhar, and Shivaji’s visit to Agra. The writer has mentioned in it the Kharkhanas functioning during the period of Shivaji, the Chandrarao More incidence, Shiledars, Subhedars, forts, their income and expenditure. There are some subjective statements like Goddess Bhawani visited and blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji with a sword and Shivaji flew to heaven after his death. Despite these references, Sabhasad Bakhar has been one of the primary source materials of the history of Marathas. 2 Chitnis Bakhar:- Chhatrapati Shahu ordered Malharrao Ramrao Chitnis, to write a bakhar one hundred twenty five years after the death of Shivaji. Malharrao Ramrao Chitnis was a contemporary to Chhatrapati Shivaji. In this bakhar, the writer has shed light on a genealogical order of the Bhosale dynasty, the birth of Rajaram, Chhatrapati Shivaji's infantry, artillery, organization of army, Karnataka campaign and his coronation ceremony of 1674. Although, there are some lapses in the chronology of the events, this bakhar has been a valuable source material of the history of Marathas. 3.Chitragupta Bhakhar:-Chhatrapati Sambhaji of Kolhapur ordered Chitragupta to write this bakhar during the period between 1760 and 1770. Chitragupta was in close relation with Balaji Avaji a Chitnis of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This bakhar is much more similar to the Sabhasad Bakhar. It means, Chitragupta elaborated the writings of Sabhasad and also added some of his own information. The most important additional information mentioned in this bakhar is that the duties of the secretariat officers in the Maratha administration. 4 Shivdigvijay:- Khando Ballal, the son of Balaji Avaji wrote this bakhar in 1718. Although this bakhar has been the most voluminous work of the writer, has not made any mention about the working of Shivaji's administration. Khando Ballal was familiar with the western literature but the genealogy of Bhosale family, which he prepared on the basis of Mughal and Rajput sources, has proved inconsistent. The writer has given detail information regarding the first Bhosla who came to Deccan was a man of ruling family of Mewar, Rajasthan. Shivaji's campaign on Javali, Rajapur and Shaiste Khan, the maternal uncle of Aurangzeb, the contribution of Kayastha Prabhu to Royal period and their heroism in various wars against the enemies of Shivaji. Although, the writer has used highly sankritised and rich language, his references regarding Tanaji Malusare's visit to Hydrabad and Raja Jaising’s death at Jaipur in 1667 are totally contradictory with the truth. 5. Shedgaonkar Bakhar:- Although more than one writers have contributed towards the completion of this Bakhar, it gives reliable and consistent information about the Royal period. This bakhar mentions Sajjan Singh was the ancestor of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who came from Rajasthan and settled down in the Deccan. The bakhar has also given detail information of genealogy of Shivaji up to Chhatrapati Pratap Singh Bhosale of Satara. This bakhar therefore has been treated as one of the important sources of Maratha history. munotes.in

History of Maratha

4 6. Chandrarao Moray Bakhar:- This is one of the well-known bakhars giving authentic information regarding the Royal period of Marathas. This bakhar deals with the battle of Rakshastagadi, kingdoms of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, process of assigning watan of Javali and the title of Raja Chandrarao Moray by Adilshah and the circ*mstances leading to Shivaji's campaign on Javali in 1655. 7. Sashti Bakhar:- This is the Bakhar written about Chimaji Appa and his conquest of north Kokan. Chimaji Appa was the brother of Peshwa Bajirao I, who helped him to conquer the area. Chimaji Appa attacked Sasht ior Salsette in 1737 and Vasai in 1739 and brought them under the control of Marathas. This bakhar deals with the way Chimaji attacked the above places, the fall of Vasai fort, the manner in which Gangaji Naik, the lieutenant of Chimaji helped him in these affairs and the circ*mstances which led Chimaji to attack Sashti, which was then under the Portuguese. 8. The Peshwa Bakhar: - It is said that Shrinivas Daji, a well-wisher of the Peshwa family ordered Krishnaji Sohoni, to note down all important incidents of all Peshwas till the decline of the Marathas in 1818. Krishnaji Sohoni discharged his duties towards the Peshwa family with much love and caution in language and stile in writing rather than caring to historicity. 9.Shahu Bakhar: - Govind Khanderao Chitnis one of the close associates of Peshwa, has written this bakhar. As the title suggests, this bakhar deals with the problems and situation Shahu faced when he was in the Mughal Court as prisoner with his mother. It is said that Aurangzab called Shahu as Shah and Shahu is the corruption shah. Shahu being prisoner in his childhood could not get any formal education in his childhood. The writer has mentioned these things in detail in this bakhar. 10.Bhausaheb Bakhar:- It is said that Mahadji Shinde ordered to write this bakhar as soon as the disaster of Panipat. Although, the reliability of this bakhar is doubtful it gives some detail ideas about the existing socio- economic scenario of the Maratha country. Another bakhar in the name of Panipat is also referred to. Gopikabai Peshwa, the wife of Nanasahab Peshwa ordered Raghunath Yadav an employee in the court of Peshwa to write this bakhar as soon as the tragedy was happened. Since, it had been ordered by the Peshwa family, its reliability is doubted. However, it gives detail information about the people, who participated in the near and lost their wives in it. 11.The Shahanavkalmi Bakhar: - This is the bakhar written by unknown writer but it was a part and parcel of the official records of Anno Datto, a Sachiv of Shivaji. He was the officer who carried revenue survey of Konkan area under the guidance of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This bakhar deals with all political events of the Marathas. After considering its originality, Chandorkar published it in his periodical ‘Prabhat’ is an important source of Maratha history. munotes.in

Sour ces of Maratha History:
Indian Sources
of work and economy

5 12. Rairi (Rajgad) Bakhar: - This is the Bakhar found at Rairi. In 1811, Prof. Sir Forrest Scott-Waring translated it into English. Forrest Scott-Warring says that this Bakhar is highly authentic. It deals with several events of the Royal period as well as the Peshwa period. Justice Telang doubts about its English translation, because of its inaccuracy and inadequacy of the language. Even then, this bakhar has been important source of the history of Marathas. 13. Tanjore Bakhar : - There is one more Bakhar, whose writer is not Known. This is the bakhar carved on the walls of the temple of Brihadishwar of Tanjore. Raja Sarfoji Bhosale of Tanjore Maratha branch had ordered to write the Bakhar. Naturally, this bakhar covers and deals with each event of this ruling family. V.K.Rajwade and G.S.Sardesai substantiated the importance and originality of this bakhar. Rajwade published the bakhar in Marathi periodical ‘Prabhat’. Hence, this is also one of the sources of the history of Marathas. 14. Shakavalies:- There are several Shakavalies available of Maratha period. They are treated as important source material of the history of Marathas. These Shakavalies give references regarding the political conditions in Maharashtra before the birth of Shivaji, his life, important events, during the life of Shivaji as his campaign on Javali, Afzal Khan episode, his administration and his policy towards his people. There are several Shakavalies which repeat one another; therefore, they stress upon biographical details and family matters. Among such Shakavalies Jedhe Shakavali is there. This Shakavali describes the activities of Jedhe family only. Hence, it is the history of Jedhe family. As Jedhe Shakavali, there is one more document, which was written during the period of the Marathas. That is called genealogical table. This also describes the family history and, the achievements of the eminent members of the family. Even this document talks about military career, political position and status as well as the property of the family. Naturally, this document can be used as an important source material of the history of Marathas. 15. Official files and Diaries: - The objective source of Maratha history is the administrative record, which was prepared during the course of administrative functioning. Although, these have been more facts and naked statements, income and expenditure tables, they are not corrupted or diluted documents. They were written daily in office only. They give exact picture of wars, campaigns moved, soldiers killed, strategies undertaken, judgments delivered and the area brought under control during these campaigns. This is with the historian to interpret those facts and build the history of Marathas. Check your progress 1 What is Bakhar? Why the Sabhasad Bhakar is called an important source material of the history of Marathas? munotes.in

History of Maratha

6 1.3 SANSKRIT SOURCES As Marathi sources are there, there are some Sanskrit sources for the history of Marathas. These sources can be divided into several heads as under:- 1.3.1 Parnala-Parvata-Grahan-Akhyanam:- It means the chapter of the fort of Panhala. This is a poem in Sanskrit found to S. M. Divekar in Saraswati Mahal, Tanjore. Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar published the poem in 1923 with its translation into Marathi language. The poem consists of 350 stanzas. Jayaram Pinde, a Sanskrit scholar composed in Sanskrit. The scholar poet was a contemporary poet to Vyankoji, the Maratha ruler of Tanjore and brother of Chhatrapati Shivaji. The poet composes in it that how he met Shivaji, his return journey to Tanjore, Shivaji's sack of Surat, the meeting of this poet with Chhatrapati Shivaji at Raigad and the battle of Umrani, which was fought in 1673. Hence, this is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 1.3.2. Radha Madhava- Vilasa- Champu:- Jayram Pinde has also written this poem in Sanskrit. V.K.Rajwade has published this poem with its translation into Marathi. In this poem, the poet has composed stanzas on Shivaji's early life, his second sack of Surat, his attack on fort Tryambak, city of Karanja, fort of Salher, Harich and Raigad, Kingdom of Jawhar and Shivaji's raid on Shaista Khan. 1.3.3. Shiva-Bharat:- This is one of the most important poetical biography of Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji ordered Parmananda to compose a poem on the Raja, Parmananda referred to the early history of the Bhosale family which is from the period of Maloji. He has also dealt with the period of Shivaji. It, therefore, is called as poetical biography of Shivaji. 1.3.4. Rajvyavahar Kosh:- This is a Sanskrit dictionary complied by Raghunath Pandit-at the instance of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This document deals with the prevalent conditions during the period of Shivaji. The writer has provided Sanskrit synonyms for all Persian and Arabic word in the practice. The writer was well versed with all institutions, Karkhanas and their functioning under the Marathas. In addition to this, the writer has given ample information on the civil and military organizations of Maratha. Kashinath Gangadhar Shastri, a well-Known Sanskrit Scholar published this document in 1860. Thus, this is one of the most important sources of the Maratha history. Check your progress 1 What is mean by Pranala- Parvata-Grahan-Akhyanam? 1.4 HINDI SOURCES Although, there are very few Hindi sources about the Maratha period, they add some information about the history of Shivaji. They deal with the life and career of Shivaji, his conflict with the Mughal and the Muslim rulers of the South. Among such literary pieces, the work of poet Bushan is name munotes.in

Sour ces of Maratha History:
Indian Sources
of work and economy

7 worthy. His work as ‘Shiva Raja Bhushan’ and other poems of the same poet considered master pieces in the literature. Although, Shiva Raja Bhushan and ‘Chhatra Prakash’ of Lalkavi do not provide substantial information about the Maratha administration but they radiate much light on the Socio- political conditions during the period of Marathas. 1.5 PERSIAN SOURCES The Persian was the official language of the Mughals who were contemporary to the Marathas. It is but natural that almost all record of that period is written in this language. There is one more reason to have many records of Marathas in the Persian language that, the Mughal emperors often launched campaigns against the Deccan of Marathas. The Mughal officers who were on such campaigns wrote their experience and maintained correspondence with the Marathas. Among such officers of Mughal, the names of Diler Khan and Raja Jaising are important. These officers were involved in the conflict with Shivaji. Apart from this, there are several other literary works, which can be studied as under: - 1.5.1. Tarikh-i-Firishta:- This is the history of Muslim rule in India. It is written by Muhammad Qasim Hindushah alias Firishta. The writer has noted down the relations between the Mughal and the Deccan. The writer says that he accompanied several Muslim campaigns to the Deccan. Therefore, he was an eye witness to these campaigns and many other events in the Deccan. Although, this is the work based on the history of Nizamuddin Ahmad, it gives detail information of the Maratha rule in the Deccan. 1.5.2. Masir-i-Alamgiri:- Persian writer, Saqi Mustad Khan has written this book on the events between the Marathas and the Mughal. This writer was highly influenced by Aurangzeb and used to accompany the Mughal army in the Deccan. Naturally, the writer described all exploits of Aurangzeb minutely and not noted down the facts which were adverse to the emperor in the south. Even then this work has one of the important source materials of Maratha history as well as it gives ample information about the Mughal Maratha relations. 1.5. 3. Muntakhab-ul-Lubab:- Muhammad Hashim alias Khafi Khan is the writer of this book. He was in the court of Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb. Jadunath Sarkar said that Khafi Khan's account has been authentic and far from being a dry record of events in the Deccan. He had been a petty revenue officer in the court of Mughal. He used to accompany the Mughal army to Deccan and was an eye witness of all conflicts between the Mughal and the Marathas. Apart from the information of military and administrative activities, he described about the then existing systems like Mansabdari and Jagirdari as well as on agrarian crisis. Hence, this has been an important source of Maratha history in Persian language. munotes.in

History of Maratha

8 1.5.4. Nuksha-i-Dilkhush:-This is the work of Bhimsen Burhanpuri, who was in the service of the Mughals for a long time. He has written about the Mughal-Maratha relations between 1700 and 1707. Although he was in the Mughal court, his writing bears no influence of the Mughals. His works on Maratha leaders during the above period is well known and considered one of the important sources of Maratha history. 1.5.5. Fatuhat-i-Alamgirl:- This is the work of a Gujarathi scholar, known as Ishwardas Nagar. The author of this book was popular for writing on the achievements of Rajputs, the Mughal activities in the South, murder of Sambhaji, the relations between the Marathas and the rulers in Karnataka, Rajaram's journey to Jinji, the problems Rajaram faced at Jinji and his shift from Jinji to Raigad. Therefore, the work of Ishwardas Nagar has considered one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 1.5.6. Siyal-ul- Mutakharin:- The author of this work was in Mughal Service. He was posted in Bengal for the whole span of his life. His work has not been biased or subjective. Although, he was not a trained writer of history, whatever he wrote, is called as an authentic information. Among his writing, the work on the conflict between Tarabai and Shahu, the role of Nizam and other petty Maratha Sardars and the civil and military administrations of the Marathas are noteworthy. Naturally, the writer, Sayyad Gulam Hussein Tabatabi was an important source of the history of Marathas. Check your progress: 1. Who was the author of Tarikh-i- Firishta 2. Bring out the importance of Masir-i-Alamgiri and Muntakhab- ul- Lubab as source material of the Marathas. 1.6 SUMMARY: The history of Marathas can be best studied with the help of first-hand source material like Bakhar, State papers, Court histories, Chronicles and accounts of contemporary travelers, who came to India and made observations of Maharashtra during the period of Marathas. The Maratha scholars and historians had worked hard to construct the history of their own land and their own people. Regarding the source material of the Maratha history, there has been ample documentary record of the Peshwa period, whereas the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji is concerned, there is scarcity of the source material. In this state of affairs, the state, whatever material had with it got destroyed. The general illiteracy and the lack of printing press contributed to the apathy of written documentary evidences. Naturally paucity of source material regarding the royal period is felt too much. Among the Marathi sources, there are several official papers, diaries, accounts, Shakavalies and various other tables which help as source material of the Maratha history. Along these letters Bakhars also are munotes.in

Sour ces of Maratha History:
Indian Sources
of work and economy

9 important in the construction of history of the Marathas. Some other historian say that Bakhars are based on hearsay and secondary information and cannot cent percent be relied upon them. In Marathi language, Shakavalies and official files and diaries also are treated as sources of this history. Apart from Marathi sources, there are some Sanskrit sources also. Among the Sanskrit sources Parnala- Parvata- Grahan -Akhyanam means the chapter of the fort of Panhala, Radha Madhava Vilasa Champu. Shiva-Bharat and Rajvyavahar Kosh are important documents, which deal with all events of the Chhatrapati Shivaji's life career and his relations with the neighboring rulers of that period. There are some Hindi Sources also regarding the Maratha period. Among them Shiva Raja Bhushan has been considered the masterpiece in the literature. Along with this literature Chhatra Prakash of Lalkavi also gives important information about the socio- political conditions of the Maratha period. In addition to Hindi Sources there are some Persian sources, which give detail information about the Marathas. The Persian was the official language of the Mughal empire and the Mughals had continuous conflict with the Marathas, this led to have much correspondence between the Mughal officers in Deccan and the Mughal emperors, this referred to the situation in the Deccan and that can be treated as the source material of the history of Marathas. Among the Persian volumes, which give first hand information about the Marathas are Tarikh-i-Firishta, Masir-i-Alamgiri, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, Nuksha-i-Dilkhush, Futuhat-i- Alamgiri and Siyal-ul-Mutakharin. The writer of Tarikh-i-Firishta is Muhammad Qasim Hindushah alias Firita. Iswardas Nagar has written about Rajaram, his journey to Jinji, the problems he faced there and again his shift to Raigad. Thus, the account of the Guajarati scholar is an important source of Maratha history. Sayyad Gulam Hussein Tabatabi noted down the information about the conflict between Tarabai and Chhatrapati Shahu and their civil and military administration. Thus, these volumes written in Persian language form the important source material of the Maratha history. 1. 7 QUESTIONS 1. Critically examine the sources of Maratha history written in Marathi language. 2. What do you understand by Bakhar sources? How far they are treated as sources of the Maratha history? 3. Give a brief account of the sources of Maratha history written in Sanskrit language. 4. Enumerate the sources of Maratha history written in the Persian language. munotes.in

History of Maratha

10 1.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS a. R. P. Patwardhan and H. G. Rawlinson, Source Book of Maratha History, K. P. Bagchi and company, Calcutta. 1978. b. J. N. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times. c. S. N. Sen, Shiva Chhatrapati d. V. S. Bendre, Sadhan Chikitsa and Maharashtra of Shivshahi Period, Bombay, Phoenix Publication, 1946. munotes.in

History of Maratha

12 2.2 FRENCH SOURCES: There were a numerable French people who came to India for various purposes. They were as under: - 2.2.1 French Physician Dr. Dellon: - This French physician came to India during the period of Marathas. He travelled throughout India specially Maratha territory of the country. He interacted with many people over there. He published his travel account when he reached Paris. His account on the Marathas is very significant for the student of Maratha history. He has dealt in detail the campaigns of Shivaji, his administration, his military strength and his policies towards his subjects. Although, his writing is based on the hearsay, it is quite authentic. It, therefore, is considered one of the important source of Maratha history. 2.2.2. Bernier, Tavernier and Thevenot: - These French travelers visited India when Shivaji was in power. They witnessed many things in the administration of Chhatrapati and noted on Shivaji's attack of Surat in 1664, his concern towards the subject and the learned people in kingdom, his military exploits, his treatment to the people of character and piety. Although, these travelers wandered through out the Maratha kingdom and collected detail information about the Marathas but the account of Thevenot is based on hearsay and is proved incorrect. Thevenot says that Shivaji was born at Vasai, he was only thirty-five when he sacked Surat for the first time and He captured the daughter of Shaista Khan. These references are totally wrong. Thevenot’s account of Shivaji’s escape from the Mughal court, Agra is again highly inaccurate. Even then, these accounts are called important sources of the history of Marathas. 2.2.3. Martin's Memoirs: - Francois Martin a French traveler and administrator has noted down several incidences which we experienced in India. He was born in 1634 in the family of a rich trader. Martin left Paris in 1650 and reached India with the group of French missionaries. He married his friend Marrie Cuperey. In the year 1665, Martin joined French East India company at Surat. His memoirs in India as a French administrator on various events of Marathas bear much significance. They are about Shivaji's Karnataka campaign, second sack of Surat, Rajaram's government at Jinji, his ministers, Rajaram's death in 1780, subsequent administration of Marathas under Tarabai and the Maratha Mughal conflict after Rajaram. Apart from the Martin's Memoirs, the account and letters written by Jesuit Missionaries are important sources for the history of Marathas. 2.2.4 Valentine's Account: - One more French traveler Francois Valentine joined the French East India Company and noted down his observations about the then situation in India. His observation regarding the sack of Surat in 1670, Aurangzeb's approach towards Shivaji, Shivaji's Visit to the Mughal court at Agra, Aurangzeb's treatment to Shivaji, Shivaji's escape from the Mughal court, the activities of Marathas while Shivaji was in north are authentic and reliable. Therefore, they are called important source material for writing history of the Marathas. munotes.in

European Sources

13 2.2.5 Abbe Carre's History of Shivaji: - In 1668, Abbe came to Surat with a Dutchman, who came to be known as Caron later. Colbert appointed Caron as the Director of the French East India, Company and held him responsible for the activities of the company. caron supported Abbe Carre for his stay at Surat and other parts of India. Abbe Carre collected every minute information about Chhatrapati Shivaji and prepared two volumes. Abbe Carre’s account on Shivaji is considered important and authentic. He was a great admirer of Shivaji and spent maximum time on writing of Shivaji's qualities. Abbe Carre referred to Shivaji as one of the greatest men in the East. He dealt in detail the sack of Surat by Shivaji, his army, his navy, civil institutions, his way of dispensation of Justice, his courage and administrative abilities. He also mentioned that Shivaji has very good places under him as ports and forts which were defended very well. He treated his guests with honour and respect. Abbe Carre further says that Shivaji was great general and firm on his decision, which led him for victory in several campaigns. Abbe Carre moved from place to place. He described Chaul as one of the prosperous ports and marts during the Maratha period. Thus, the description of Abbe Carre is very important source of Maratha history. Check your Progress: 1.Discuss briefly the accounts of the French travelers as one of the sources of the Maratha History. 2.3 PORTUGUESE SOURCES: Students of history should refer to the European sources to understand the history of Marathas, because it is considered that these sources are impartial and without bias. The writers of these sources were unaware about the conditions and culture prevailed in the country. They noted down the information as they observed apparently and committed several lapses but their accounts are informative and accurate in several other aspects. The people who visited India from Portugal were many and were from various sections of the Portuguese society. The description of some of them can be studied as under: - 2.3.1. Guarda's life of Shivaji: - Cosme da Guarda was one of the earliest Portuguese biographers of Chhatrapati Shivaji. He was a citizen of Mormugoa, which was under the Portuguese rule then. The writer claims that he wrote this biography of Shivaji in 1695- but it was not published for a long time. Cosme da Guarda dealt in detail about Shivaji's Judicial administration, his approach towards the welfare of common people, Shivaji as the youngest son of Shahaji and how he was named as Shivaji in the honour of the lord Shiva. Guarda was a staunch admirer of Shivaji. He described that Shivaji took quick actions intelligently. He was like a magician and was present at all places. Shivaji's campaign against Afzal Khan scared the rulers and powers during that time and nobody tried to defeat him. He further mentioned about Shivaji's relations with the Mughals, the Treaty of Purandhar, his Agra visit and escape from Agra. Guarda’s accounts on the birth place of Shivaji, references regarding munotes.in

History of Maratha

14 chronology are confusing and wrong. He has also written about the trading places during the time of Shivaji and mentioned about his death. Thus, the account of Guarda proves one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.3.2 The Work of some prominent writers: - There are several prominent historians and writers who have written about the Maratha country. Among them the name of Justice Biker, Lopes Menedes, Cunha Rivara, Phillipe Xavier and Ismael Gracias are worthy. Justice Biker's work contains Shivaji's political and administrative setup, diplomatic dealings with various neighbors. He has also written about the Treaties in 1667 and 1670 between the Portuguese and the Chhatrapati Shivaji. The Portuguese were neighbor to the Marathas for many centuries. The original letters regarding the relations are placed in the Historical Records at Goa and Lisbon, which are important as source material for writing and studying the history of Marathas. The Village community has been one of the outstanding features of the Maratha history. This arrangement had been continued from the ancient period. The village community enjoyed all rights and prerogatives. The Portuguese government held enquiries about the rights and privileges of the village community under their jurisdiction. Lopes Menedes, Afonso Mexia noted down in detail the conditions of the Village community under the Marathas. Thus, it is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. Along with Lopes Menede’s writings, the work of Saldanha, Moniz, and Amancio, Gracia give us substantial information regarding the Maratha history. Another Portuguese writer Cunha Rivara has written about the Maratha period. He has dealt in detail the civil, administration, Military and diplomatic relations of Shivaji. The original work of Cunah Rivara has been translated in various other languages. Thus, this is also important for the study of the Maratha history. Ismael Gracias is one more Portuguese writer and historian. He has written about the proceedings of Shivaji, his civil institution, eight ministers, his naval organization and the whole military set up. He also mentioned various campaigns of Shivaji against his enemies. Ismael gracias gave a good description about the campaigns of Sambhaji on Goa. He narrated about the strategy, diplomacy and the area covered by Sambhaji. Gracias further writes about the naval power of Marathas, their officers, activities they undertook and major achievements of the navy. There is much more important campaign of Marathas, which is known as the Maratha conquest of Bassein. This writer has written every aspect of that campaign in detail. Thus, this document also is called as important source of Maratha history. 2.3.3 Marquis of Alorna:- Being contemporary to Marathas, he has written about the conditions prevailed under the Marathas. Marquis was a Portuguese Governor of India. While, he was in office, he described in detail the Maratha administration, their military system, their military munotes.in

European Sources

15 strength, civil organizations, tax system and the lapses committed by the Marathas while executing them. He has also referred to the Weakness, which were inherent in the administration of the Maratha rulers. The work of Marquis is translated in English by F.N.Xavier. Danvers has written a book, which is known as ‘Portuguese in India’. In this book, the writer mentioned about to the Maratha administration. Thus, this is also as one of the important Sources of the Marathas. Check your Progress: Q.2. Who were the Portuguese travelers visited India during the period of Maratha history? 2.4 ENGLISH SOURCES The English people came to India to establish their trade relations with the country. The initial attempts of the British people led them to establish their factories in India. Several factors and agents began to stay in the country, under the banner of the East India Company. These people in the process of trade and commerce, began to prepare the record of Indian situation, rulers, their own factories and activities, which they used to send to England on regular basis. Thus, this was the record which was required by the Government stationed in England. This record consisted the reports of their administration, their decisions, reasons on which decisions were taken, proposals, minutes of their meetings, proceedings and consultations. Although, these dispatches were rules, regulations, explanations, and letters of British Presidencies in India, they were the free and frank opinions of the British people in India, about their contacts, their relations or the treatment they received from the Indian rulers. Thus, these facts are used as the source of history of Marathas. Initially, when the company had only commercial interest in the country, did not concentrate their attention on other matters but knowingly or inadvertently there were some references or remarks regarding the political organizations or administrative set up of the indigenous rulers. For example, the factors mentioned the incident of Killing of Afzal Khan by Shivaji and the Company relations with him. The reason, which brought the Marathas in contact with the Company, was that Shivaji needed some guns from the Company but the Company did not supply the guns to him. Therefore, Shivaji attacked on Konkan towns of the Company including Dabhol. The second reason was that the Subhedar of Adil Shah, who was enemy of Marathas sought refuge at the Company establishment of Rajapur. The Maratha official over there, informed the Company to hand over the Adishahi Subhedar as well as his ship stationed at Rajapur to the Marathas. But the Company officials refused to do the same. The Maratha official arrested the Company officials at Rajapur, who were rescued later. The same Company officials at Rajapur sold some ammunition to Siddi and helped him to siege the fort of Panhala and created difficulties for Shivaji. Naturally, Shivaji wanted to teach the Company official a lesion, munotes.in

History of Maratha

16 he sent his contingent, arrested the Company officials, put them in prison and shifted them from place to place. The factory records also refer to Shivaji's encounter with the Company officials second time in 1664. When Shivaji had been to Surat, he required some money from the European traders including the British, the demand of Shivaji was as per the tradition existed during that time, but the British traders did not help Shivaji. When Shivaji went to Surat in 1670, the European traders and merchant helped Shivaji with Some money and presents. Chhatrapati promised them to protect their possessions at and around Surat. Shivaji came into contact with the East India Company when the Siddi of Danda-Rajapur had become quite troublesome for him. Shivaji wanted some help from the Company officials at Bombay. Although, the East India Company at Bombay wanted to help Shivaji, due to the apprehension of the Mughal emperor, the Company officials did not help as the Siddi was the protégé of the emperor. Thus, such references regarding the Maratha history are available in the Company records, which are considered as sources of the Maratha history. There are several other English writers, travelers and historians, which can be studied as below:- 2.4.1 Fryer:- Although, there are several English travelers who visited India and noted down the information they came across. The information collected by Fryer has much importance in the history of Marathas, Fryers, a British Physician came to Bombay, visited several places of the East India Company and the Marathas. He also went to Chaul, a town in Alibag taluka of Raigad District in Konkan region. Dr. Fryer writes that Chaul, was a thickly populated town and flourishing trade centre during the period of Marathas. It was controlled by Chhatrapati Shivaji in 1670 and remained with him still it was totally ruined in the wars with the Mughals. It was a great mart of all commodities of South India and distanced two miles away from the Portuguese city lower Chaul. In the year 1674 there were around three thousand houses in the upper Chaul gutted into fire. The fire affected people were forced to take shelter in lower Chaul and in the British controlled island of Bombay. Naturally, the trade and commerce of that place was shifted to Kalyan. Dr. Frayer describes that he Visited Kalyan in 1675 and found that it was a flourishing trading centre during the period of Marathas. Thus, it was easy for any one to slip into Maratha territory from Bombay. Hence, the account of Frayer has been important source of Maratha history. 2.4.2. Mannucci's Storia Da Mogor: - There is one more English version of travel account of Nicolo Mannucci an Italian traveler, who wrote Storia Mogor. Mannucci had come to India for a considerable time between 1658 & 1708 and visited several places of Marathas. Mannucci mentions in his writing that he accompanied Raja Jai Singh in his Deccan campaign and met Chhatrapati Shivaji at the time of Treaty of Purandhar. Naturally, the account of Mannucci, is treated one of the important sources of Maratha history. This valuable account is translated into English by Major Jervis a British revenue officer, who had conducted revenue survey of whole Konkan. munotes.in

European Sources

17 2.4.3. Major Jervis’s Geographical and statistical Memoir of the Konkan :- He was in the service of the East India Company during the time of Elphinstone’s , as Governorship of Bombay Presidency . Major Jervis was assigned the duty of conducting revenue survey of the Konkan region. During this survey , Major Jervis came to understand many things about the Maratha rule in the country . He has given detail account of the land revenue settlement of Shivaji and Annaji Datto's survey and revenue assessment system .Major Jervis says that the barren or fallow or warkus land was assessed by the plough and not by the bighas . It was measured loosely , as six to seven bighas of this land was considered as one bigha for the revenue settlement . Many a times , the revenue of barren or banjar land varied and was not based on the fertility of the land but the nature of the crops grown in such land . Major Jervis also noted down the information of assessment of second crops at a special rate as Turmeric and Hemp five maunds per bigha while sugarcane 6 1/4 maunds per bigha. Major Jervis has also written about the revenue system of Malik Ambar, who was basically an Abyssinian and adopted India as his own country. Major Jervis says that Malik Ambar worked hard with open mind under the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar. During the Mughal attacks on this kingdom, it was on the verge of total collapse due to exhaustion of all economic resources. Malik Ambar then undertook the revenue system in such a way that the Nizamshahi Kingdom could withstand the onslaughts of the Mughal successfully. Thus, the account of Major Jervis is treated as one of the important sources of Maratha history. 2.4.4. Scott- Waring :-He is one more English historian, who tried to write a detailed history of the Marathas. His account on Chhatrapati Shivaji's revenue system, administration,navy and armed forces is an important source of the Maratha history. He says that although Shivaji was busy in several campaigns throughout his career, he was never inattentive to the growing interest of his people and the state. He secured and defended the land in the region of Konkan. He always took suitable measures for the extension of cultivation and improvement of agriculture in his kingdom. Scott-Waring's history of Marathas was published in 1811 which met the needs of the readers of the political history of Marathas. 2.4.5. Grant Duff:- Captain Grant Duff came to India in the third decade of the 13th Century and worked as a political agent of the British Government at various places under the Governorship of Elphinstone. He was able to refer to various original papers of Marathas placed at several places. Grant Duff, while working as a revenue officer at Satara, had been in direct access to all the papers like Bakhars and diaries kept in the Satara archives. Chhatrapati Pratap Singh, the descendent of Chhatrapati Shivaji helped him in every possible manner and handed him over all the important state papers. Thus, Grant Duff has written two volumes on the Marathas which are treated as important source material of the history of Marathas. 2.4.6. Kincaid and Parasnis:-These joint authors have written the history of Marathas on the basis of huge document that Rao Bahadur munotes.in

History of Maratha

18 D.B.Parasnis possessed. These historians used published as well as unpublished material to write the history of the Marathas. They have given detail information about the history of Chhatrapati Shivaji. Thus, this has been called important- source of the history of Marathas. 2.4.7. Mahadeo Govind Ranade:- A western educated Maharashtra historian attempted to write a comprehensive history of Marathas . Ranade worked in various capacities and wandered throughout the state for his multi-dimensional responsibility and collected important document for his writing the history of ‘Rise of the Maratha Power’. Ranade's work has been treated authentic source of the Maratha history because he was destined to know the language, traditions, customs and conventions of the Marathas as well as he was fully conversant with the methodology of writing of history. As he had worked at different places, he was in access to all original papers of the Marathas. Ranade dealt in detail all battles and conflicts and searched out the circ*mstances and reasons of those conflicts. He could find out the causes and factors which led to the rise, progress, expansion and decline of the Marathas. This forced him to survey the whole administrative set up, civil institutions of Chhatrapati Shivaji. It is very well made known by Ranade that Chhatrapati was the most genius Maratha ruler, who manifested the Maratha aspirations. Ranade is the first historian, who has written in detail about Chhatrapati Shivaji's administrative system and compared Shivaji with Napoleon in organisation and building of civil institutions, Thus, Ranade's history of Rise of Maratha Power has been the most important source of Maratha history. There are several other historians whose writings can be treated as sources of Maratha history:- 2.4. 8. H.G. Rawlinson: - Prof. H.G. Rawlinson's book ‘Shivaji- the Maratha’ Gives ample information about the history of Marathas. 2.4.9 Takkhav and Keluskar: - These two professors have written on the life of Shivaji Maharaj, which gives detail information about Chhatrapati Shivaji , his administration and civil institutions. 2.4.10 Henry Oxinden:- He was an employee of the East India Company. He visited Raigad, the capital of Chhatrapati Shivaji in 1674. He attended the coronation ceremony of Shivaji and witnessed the glory of the celebration. The Diary of Henry Oxinden is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.4. 11. Sydney Owen: - He has written a book titled India on the Eve of the British Conquest. In this book the writer has taken a survey of Chhatrapati Shivaji's life and career, his conquest, administration and his policy towards his people. 2.4.12. Pringle Kennedy:- He is the author of the book History of the Great Mughals. In this book he has depicted clearly the achievements of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the existing conditions in Maharashtra. The munotes.in

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19 book gives detail information about the civil institutions of the administration of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 2.4.13. Jadunath Sarkar: - His book, Shivaji and His Times is based on the various sources of the Maratha history. It, therefore, is an important source for the study of the Maratha history. Check Your Progress: Q.3.Elucidate the sources of the Maratha History written in English. 2.5 DOUCH SOURCES: As there are various sources in English language, there are also some sources which are written by Dutch travelers and people, they can be classified as under:- 2.5.1. De Graaf: - He was a Dutch Surgeon and adventurer. He travelled very widely in the Eastern countries for more than six times. He visited India for the last time in 1679 during the period of emperor Aurangzeb. When he was in Bengal, he learned about Chhatrapati Shivaji's campaigns in the territories of the Mughal and developed keen interest about the Chhatrapati's adventure, and administration. De Graaf began to collect the detail information about the Chhatrapati’s institutions, campaigns, strategy and his relations with his neighbouring rulers like the Mughals and the Portuguese. The account of De Graaf also gives information about trading centres under the Mughal and the Chhatrapati. Thus, this account can be treated as one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.5.2. Goutier Schouten:- He was the second Dutch traveller, who visited India and referred to Chhatrapati Shivaji as one of the important rulers of the country. Goutier Schouten descended the territories of Marathas in the year 1658. He travelled widely in Konkan and the places of Portuguese. He had been to Surat and collected every minute information about the trading position over there. Goutier Schouten was present when Shivaji attacked Surat to teach a lesson to the British traders for the issue of non-payment of taxes to the Chhatrapati. He says that the Chhatrapati's attack on Surat created long lasting positive consequences in the history of India which would be remembered for a long time by the people. Thus, this account also treated as a source of Maratha History. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: 1. Assess the Factory Records, proceedings; consultations and travelogues as the sources of the Maratha history. 2. Comment on M.G. Ranade’s writing as one of the important sources of the Maratha history. munotes.in

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20 2.6 SUMMARY The Europeans came to this country for various other purposes and one of them was trade with the country. Those Europeans established their companies in India and pursued their trade as per the orders and commands dispatched by their mother countries. On other hand the European companies in India began to send the whole report of their activities in the country to their governments. Those reports were in various forms as factory reports, Memoirs and Travelogues. Naturally, those reports were not the reports of their naked activities only, but they reported directly or indirectly the existing conditions in India, the accounts of native rulers, their administration. Their strength, their relations with various neighbours and the chances of trade of European people. Among the French officials, armed forces, merchants and traders, there were some travelers who were from every section of the society, as physicians and missionaries. Bernier, Tavernier and Thevenot were other French travellers, who also visited Chhatrapati Shivaji's kingdom during his lifetime. As the French sources, there are some Portuguese sources also, which are written by Portuguese officials and travelers, when they were in India. Among them Cosme da Guarda was well known Portuguese traveler, who came to India and became a citizen of Marmugoa, which was under the Portuguese control that time. Cosme da Guarda wrote a biography of Shivaji in 1695. Among such eminent personalities Judice Biker, Lopes Mendes, Cunha Rivara , Phillipe Xavier and Ismael Gracias were well known. Judice Biker’s account contains the treaties of 1667 and 1670 between the Marathas and the Portuguese. Lopes Mendes Affenso Mexia , another Portuguese writer dealt in detail about the village community , its rights and powers in travel account. Ismael Gracias referred to the civil and military administration, campaigns of Shivaji and Sambhaji against the Portuguese. Marquis of Alorna was a Portuguese Governor of India. He had his own observation of the neighbouring rulers of Marathas, and the goofs they committed by them in the administration . In addition to these sources there are some British sources for the study of the history of Marathas. After British established their factories, the Company officials began to send the report of their activities in India to England. Along with these reports, proceedings and consultations of the Company activities in India, there were several references regarding to the local conditions and indigenous rulers. As Chhatrapati Shivaji wanted to purchase some guns from the British East India Company, but the Company officials did not sell them to Shivaji . Apart from these references and correspondences , there were some travelers and historians who came to India and have written about the Marathas . Among them Fryer was an important traveler, who visited munotes.in

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21 various places under Chhatrapati Shivaji . Major Jervis ,Scott Waring , Grand Duff , were some of the prominent writers. Kincaid and Parasnis have jointly authored the history of Marathas on the basis of original document Rao Bahadur D. B. Parasnis possessed, which treated as source material of the history of Marathas. Ranade M. G. a westerned educated Maratha historian As justice has done a detail study of the Marathas. Like Ranade, G. S. Sardesai also has written in detail about the Marathas. There are several other historians as H. G. Rawlinson, Takkav , Keluskar, Henri Oxinden, Sindney owen, Pringle Kennedy and Jadunath Sarkar have their own writings, which are treated as source material of the Maratha history. 2.7 QUESTIONS 1. Briefly discuss the French sources of the history of Marathas . 2. Examine the Portuguese sources of the history of Marathas . 3. Analyse the English sources of the history of Marathas. 4. Enumerate the European sources of the history of Marathas . 2.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. R.P. Patwardhan and H.G. Rawlinson, Source Book of Maratha History . 2. Sen S. N., Foreign Biographies of Shivaji, Administrative system of the Marathas. 3. Rajwade , Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane.  munotes.in

History of Maratha
32 Maharashtra. The social life under the Marathas was based on the caste
system whose origin was believed to be divine. It, therefore was not
changed. The caste system was handed down undisturbed from father to
son for generations together. It became hereditary and a new principle of
stagnation was introduced in the social life of the Marathas. That social
struct ure became so stationary that it seemed beyond any change in near
future. The upper caste looked after the need of education but there was
no competition from any other castes, therefore, there was no
advancement in knowledge. The upper caste transmitted whatever they
received from their preceptor. There was a firm belief in the social life of
the Marathas that the Vedas, the books of revealed knowledge contained
every aspect of knowledge which is required to satisfy the need s of the
existing s ociety for ever. Buckley says that there is clear evidence that the
society which perfectly ignores the physical laws definitely ref ers to the
supernatural causes and all the phenomena by which it is surrounded. It is
said that the social l ife of the Maratha period was somewhat superstitious.
If we consider the above viewpoints, it is clear that there were conflicting
influences of geography of Maharashtra and impact of myriad social
system on the man during the period of Marathas. He did not understand
his own mind in a critical moment. He kept himself meek , accepted
the traditional theory of Karma and believed that he must abide by the
norms of his own caste. Means there was no incentive for him to make
any Endeavour to better his social lot. Naturally, the social life did not
leave any choice to the person, he never exercised his reason and lived life
under the pressure of traditions.
uckley further says that about the woman the less said the better. The
woman led her life from the beginning to the end as a dependent. Her
social position is no better than that of a slave and when ignorance added
to the slavery it became a mighty restraini ng force on the society. On
the other hand, the woman in Maratha period had committed
remarkable work in the politics and administratio n. The list of such
women is considerable as Tarabai, Jijabai, Ahilyabai, Radhabai,
Gopikabai, Laxmibai and Yamunabai. Ca ptain Broughton observes abou t
the Maratha women that there is a strikingly difference displayed by the
Maratha woman in the ride on horse without taking any pain to conceal
her face, she gallops about and makes her way through the throng
with as much boldness and perseverance as the man. This boldness
developed in the woman due to the impact of environment and geography
of Maharashtra.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS:
1. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of forests towards t he
Maratha economy.
2. What were the major crops grown during the period of Maratha?

munotes.in

History of Maratha
34 Rajmachi. They all are attractive and bear natural beauty. These tops
helped the Marathas.
3.The Satpura Ranges:- These ranges have occupied the western part
of the Maratha territory . These are connected to the rift valleys of Tapi
and Narmada rivers.
4. The Konkan:- It is a littoral region between the walls of Sahyadri
and the Arabian sea . This is between the Da manganga river in the
north and Terekhol river in the south . It is a hilly criss-crossed and
furrowed region due to the fast flowing streams from various hills of
Sahyadri ranges
.5. Local landscape :- This landscape has features as occasional
rounded summits on lava hills , particular knobs, terraces , some shoulders
on ledgers , small amphitheatres , emanated talus cones , several
junctions of hills , rough surface and gullies developed by water
flowing from the hills
.6. Rivers and their basins: - The rivers in Maharashtra , drain both to
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea . These are Krishna , Bhima , Tapi,
Godavari, Wardha, Wainganga and Nar mada. There are several tributaries
to big rivers as Penganga , Manjara , Koyana and Varna . The rivers like
Vaitarna, Ulhas , Savitri and Vashisti, which origin from the Sahyadri
ranges and flow in Konkan region . These rivers have developed ravines
and deeply entrenched water courses with shallow mouths , which helped
the Marathas variously .
Maharashtra comes under a typically monsoonal character as it has
hot, cold and rainy weather. As t he result the Konkan and the plateau
are in extreme heat during the months of March, April and May and
experience some time the moderate thunderstorms. G enerally, the
agricultural production depends on the amount of annual rain fall and its
distribution during the year. This only creates zones like rice zone , millet
zone and so on . For est has an important role in the economy of the
region. During the period of the Marathas it played a protective and bio-
aesthetic role and also helped in generating good revenue . The Konkan
region had rice, c oconut, nachni and mango as main crops. While the
other regions produced almost all crops ranging from jowar to s ugarcane
and cotton to nourish the people and generate good revenue. The
geography and the climate created several zones on the basis of
production as the rice-coconut –nachni –mango region of Konkan.
Coastland, the rice – nachni trac ts of Sahyadris, The jowar-bajra-oilseed-
sugarcane zone of the Bhima and Krishna valleys and jawar-bajra-wheat-
cotton-sugarcane zones of Godavari and Tapi valleys. In short, almost all
crops were raised during the period of Marathas subject to the good
monsoon and evenly distribution of rainfall throughout the year .

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Influence of Geographical
Factors on Socio- Economic
Life of Marathas
35 The Maratha social life had several features based on geography and its
factors, which helped to nourish all communities, groups , religions , castes
and cultures . As there were Muslims in India, they were under the
Marathas, in their administr ation and army. According to R.V. Nadkarni,
in the social life the principle of theocracy predominated means all other
things subordinated to it. Buckley made an observation about the Maratha
social life that the society which ignores the physical laws refers to the
supernatural causes and the phenomena by which it is s urrounded.
3.6 QUESTIONS :
a. Examine the geographical influence on the socio- economic life of
Marathas.
b. Bring out the geographical features of Maharashtra under the
Maratha rule.
c. How did the geographical conditions influence socio- economic life of
Marathas?
d. Trace the special features of Geography of Mahara shtra. Discuss
its impact on the socio- economic life of people during the period of
Marathas.
3.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1. G.S. Sardesai, New History of the Marathas, vol. I.
2. Sarkar J adunath, Shivaji and His Times, Calcutta, 1961.
3. Bhave V.K., Shivraj and Sivakal , Poona ,1957.
4. Deshpande C. D., Geography of Maharashtra, National Book Trust,
New Delhi, 1971.



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Bhakti Mo vement

37 devotees in dancing exuberantly with the name of God on their lips, which
always attracted and inspired the observers towards them.
Bhakti movement was a movement of realization of God with in oneself
and the union of the individual with God through the loving devotion
of the devotee towards God. This Bhakti movement began in India before
the rise of Sufism in Islam and its percolat ion in India. The origin of
Bhakti was traced in the Vedas and the Up anishads. It was an
established element in the post-Vedic age and the Bhagwat movemen t.
During this period Bhakti was considered with Jnana and Karma as paths
to Salvation. There are two aspects of Bhakti as one is the path of
devotion based on service to God. The devotee throwing himself
completely at the mercy of God, which is known as the path of
surrende ring to God. The other one is the bond based on pure love and
equality rather than service to God. This is exemplified in the legends
of Vishnu and Bhagwata Puranas.
Bhakti as a loving devotion to Siva and Vishnu was emphasized by a
series of flourished saints in South India. During the period of Pallava
rulers of Tamil land, Bhakti movement spread to Pandya Kingdom of
South Tamil land and the Chera kingdom of Kerala-with its new and
popular features. The saints who preached and spread the Bhakti came to
be known as Nayanars and Alvars, who were the worship ers of Shiva and
Vish nu respectively. The broad based character of this movement was that
the saints mentioned above were not only Bra hmins but were from all
castes and sex. It gave a clear message that the loving devotion was not
meant for any one section but for all segme nts, irrespective of caste,
family or sex in the society and based on egalitarian approach in
denigration of caste system. They preached Bhakti in a si mple language
of common people and could make a strong emotional appeal to them and
converted the Bhakti movement in to a mass movement.
In the 12th century, the Bhakti movement was represented by the
followers of Vir Shaiva or Lingayats, who were the worship pers of Shiva.
They laid emphasis on love towards God and Bhakti as the means of
attaining the goals of human life. They attached great importance to the
guru and rejected fasts, feasts and pilgrimages. they propounded human
equality and denounced caste system and disapproved all social ills.
4.2 CAUSES OF THE RISE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
As mentioned earlier, t he Bhakti movement originated in South India
and spread to each and every c orner of the country. It became a
mass movement in North India from the 13th to the 16th centuries as the
result of fermentation made in those parts of the country. There were
several other factors responsible for the rise of Bhakti movement,
important some of them are explained as under:- About the origin of the
Bhakti movement two distinct periods are given as the first period starts
from the earliest time to the 13th century. The second period starts from
the 13th century to the 16th century. In the first period there was a
concomitant of two tendencies as the pantheism of the intellectual munotes.in

Bhakti Mo vement

39 face any problem after the initial phase of warfare came to an end.
Nizamuddin further says that the Hindu rel igion is too strong to be
affected either by any threat of force or the ideology of brotherhood and
equality of Islamism. As a matter of fact there was no equality sustained
following the conversion of artisans and low c astes Indian to
Islamism. According to Nizamudd in Auliya the Turkish rulers looked
down upon the Hindu converts. Even then this was considered one of the
causes for the rise of Bhakti movement in the north India.
Follo wing the Muslim invasion on India, a number of Indians were
converted to Islamism by force. This fact convinced the Hindu saints
and reformers that unless they carry out certain reforms in the country.
It was not possible for them to withstand the Islamic ideological c hallenge
and retain the low castes Hin dus in Hinduism.
There is also an argument that some of the people were not happy with
the highly philosophical exposition of Hinduism, which they were not
able to understand it. Therefore, the saints and reformers turned towards a
set up which these people easily comprehended. This led to start Bhakti
movement in the country.
The major reason for the rise of bhakti movement was the medieval
Hindu society, which was unde r several s ocial problems, systems,
tradition and customs. These social evils did not keep social harmony but
increased severe differences in it. Among them the problems of caste,
untouchability and subservience of women were there. These elements
were to sustain several atrocities and were to be victims of dominant
segments. Therefore, the Hindu saints and reformers were convinced
that there should be a movement to topple or mitigate these ill-treatments
and create a new setup which would not believe in these outdated systems.
4.3 IMPORTANT FEATUR ES OF THE BHAKTI
MOVEMENT
Although, there were several factors ascribed to the rise of Bhakti
movement, several philosophers propounded several principles. There was
some kind of uniformity amon g them on stressing upon eradication and
condemnation of some social evils and practices. These principles,
practices and social evils were as under:-
As mentioned above, the most of the philosophers and saints of the Bhakti
movement strongly oppo sed to the caste system and untouchability as the
social evils and impediments in the development of social harmony.
These saints stood for the eradication of those evils from the
society. They professed that God could be pleased and attained by way
of bhakti by any person of any section in the society, irrespective of his
caste, colour, race, or sex. Naturally, they emphasized on the principle of
brotherhood and equality among the people.
munotes.in

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41 Saint Dyaneshwar:-He was the most revered and the prime saint of 12th
century Maharashtra. He came to prominence due to his commentary on
Gita, the holy book of the Hinduism. Saint Dyaneshwar made equal
stress on Dyana, Karma and bhakti of devotee towards his God as ways
for attainment of God. The most important contribution of Dyaneshwar
inter alia to the bhakti movement was that he wrote the Dyaneshwari in
the language of common people, that is Marathi. Had he written in
Sanskrit, the message, which he wanted to give, would have not reached to
each and every man of the state.
Namde va: - Saint Dyaneshwara had several successors but Namdeva was
eminent among them. Namdeva popularized the bhakti movement
through out Maharashtra as well as India Dr. Tarachand says that the
whole credit of changing mind of priest- ridden and ceremonial creed of
people towards t he love of God- goes to Namd eva. Namdeva who was
born in 1270 A.D in Maharashtra preached intense love and devotion to
God. He opposed to idol worship in religion and caste system in society.
Namdeva asserted that salvation could be achieved through bhakti or
devotion to God and not through any rel igious ritual. He often declared
that a true devotee neither needed any pilgrimages nor fast or
austerities, but he needed to concentrate his attention on the name of Hari
i.e. God. Namdeva travelled a lot in the northern parts of India and
engaged himself in discuss ions with many saints of that period.
Naturally, his followers belonged to all sections of society.
Ram anand a: - He contributed a lot to make the bhakti movement popular
in various parts of the country. Ramananda was born at Pra yag, Allahab ad
and followed the philosophy of his guru Ra manuja. He popularised the
worship of Rama as one of the inc arnations of Vishnu. Means he
believed in the philosophy of Vaishnavism. Although, Ramananda did not
isolate himself from the tra ditional value in the society, he disregarded
caste barriers and preached equality in society. He encouraged common
kitchen for people belonged to different castes and eating together without
observing any distance. Ramananda had chosen his followers from
various sections of the society as Ravidas was a cobbler, Kabir was a
weaver, Sena was a barber and Sadhana was a butcher.
Naturally, these saints sent the massage of equality and Hindu- Muslim
unity to each and every part of the country.
Kabir :- He was being one of the closest discipl es of Ramananda, could
learn Vedanta philosophy very well from him and involved himself in
bhakti movement more than any other saints. He spread the message of
bhakti to his optimum possible among the people and became the
propagator of Hindu- Muslim unity. He strongly criticized on idol worship
and caste system in the society. Although, he was a great saint of bhakti
movement. There is no certainty about his early life and his birth. There
are stories galore abou t him. Historians say that he was Hindu by birth but
he was brought up by his adopted father, a Muslim weaver at Kashi.
While Kabir began to follow his father in weaving profession, he came
into contact with bhakti saints that led him to denounce image worship, munotes.in

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43 of Brahma, the supreme God. The individual can attain salvation by way
of bhakti irrespective of his caste, creed, colour, sex and his position in the
society. It means, Ramanuja protested against the caste system. Thus, this
created a stir in the society and generated several saints, who followed
Ramanuja. It, therefore, is said that the bhakti movement, in real sense,
began from Ramanuja.
Madhava Charya:- He was one of the learned saints of the bhakti
movement from southern part of India and travelled widely to every
corner of the country for propagation of his philosophy. Madha va Ch arya
propounded the philosophy of two beings as independent and depended
beings i.e. dualism. He says that God is the only omniscient and therefore,
is independent being. The all others i.e. matter and soul are dependent
beings. He further says that the individual soul is absolutely dependent on
Brahma and can be divided into three categories as viable to achieve final
bliss, rotating the cycle of birth and death and sinner, viable for eternal
hell. He emphasized on the importance of Guru in the attainment of
salvation through love and bhakti towards God. Madhava Charya had
several books to his credit on Brahma Sutra, Upanishidas, Bhagwat Gita
and Mahabharata. Thus, Madhavacharya was the most influential saint of
the bhakti movement.
Nimb arka:- He was one of the well-known saints of bhakti movement
from south India and spent almost all his life in north India, Nimbarka
was a contemporary to Ramanuja and a writer of commentary on Brahma
Sutra. Nimbarka delt in detail about Brahma, soul and matter in his book
Dasa sloka. He also made it clear that the individual soul is a part and
parcel of Brahma, the supreme God and popularised the Radha- Krishna
Cult throughout India. Nimbaraka tried his level best to combine the
philosophy of Du alism and Advaitism. Roma Chaudhari says that
Nimbaraka tried to satisfy man's heart and head as well as intellect and
feeling in the process of attaining God by way of bhakti. He did not over
emphasis head on the heart or intellect on the feeling he tried to keep them
balanced.
VallabhaCharya:- He was one more philosopher from South India, who
had involved actively in the bhakti movement and came to be Known as
one of the philosophers of Advaita philosophy. V allabhacharya
propounded the philosophy of pure non dualism without the idea of Maya
and universal relig ion irrespective of caste, sex creed and nationality. He
empha sized on the doctrine of grace, the ideal of self-dedication and
sublimation of human life. Vallabhacharya wrote several commentaries on
Brahma Sutra, Jaimani Sutra, A nubhashya, Tattvarthadipa and four vedas.
Naturally, Vallabha charya had exerted much in fluence on his large
followers, which he selected from various corners of the country and
from various sections in the society.
Chaitanya:- He was a Bengali bhakti saint, and became a wande ring
monk after receiving initiation from his Guru at the age of twenty two.
Chaitanya went on pilgrimage to holy places of India like Mathura,
Dwarka, Vrinada ban, Somnath, Pandharpur, Kashi and R ameshwar. munotes.in

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45 human equality, brotherhood, morality and justice led his disciples to
start a new religion. Thus, the Sikhism came into existence.
Social Change:- Al most all bhakti saints professed the philosophy of
social cordialit y, friendliness, universal brotherhood and the unity of god.
They also criticized and protested against the out dated and useless
traditions, customs and systems like caste and untouchability. Naturally,
this led to reduce the austerity of these social evils and weakened
them considerably. Thus, the bhakti movement paved the way of change
in society.
Bhakti Movement Stimul ated change in religious thinking. When
almost all saints began to attack on the orthodoxy of the religious, then
the period of soul-searching exercise began in the religions minded
people. These saints also tried to align them with some other philosophers
and sects other than their own traditional faith.
As the bhakti movement created stir in society and religion, it also
enhanced the change in the approach of rulers then in India. Due to bhakti
movement only, the rulers were forced to understand the religion of the
masses for their smo oth and uninterrupted administration in the country.
Although, the bhakti movement did not bring revolutionary and radical
changes as the Reformation brought about in Europe, but it created a deep
lapidary impact on the mind of each and every person in I ndia of the
Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries which was towards the
positives changes and was based on the human equality.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS
1 Discuss briefly the background of the bhakti movement.
2. Enumerate any four causes of the bhakti movement.
4.6 SUMMARY
Bhakti is the Hindu concept of supreme love and devotion to the God. It is
the most popular way of achieving Salvation in the life of an individual
in Hinduism followed sin ce the ages. Bhakti or devotion has meaning
only if it is blended with love towards all human beings and creatures in
the universe without any bias or reservations. Such bhakti is bound to be
reflected in the devotee's personality, radiating powerful and luminous
divine energy, aiming at welfare and compassion towards huma n beings.
Bhakti or devotion leads to ecstasy and expels all forms of hate, envy,
lust, greed and attracts only truth, goodness and righteousness.
The origin of bhakti movemen t was traced in the Vedas and Up anishidas.
It was an established element in the post-Vedic age and the Bhagwat
movement. During this period, it was considered that bhakti, Jnana and
Karma were three different paths to Salvation. There are two aspects of
bhakti as one is the path of devotion based on Service to God, i.e. the
devotee throws himself completely at the mercy of God, which is known
as the path of surrende ring to God. The other one is the bond based on munotes.in

History of Maratha
46 pure love and equality rat her than service to God. This is exemplified in
the legends of Vishnu and Bhagwat Puranas.
Regarding t he origin of the bhakti movement, two distinct periods are
given as one from the earliest to the thirteenth century and the second
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. These periods had some
distinct c haracteristics- as the first period represented the combination
of pantheism of the intellectuals and the deistic polytheism of commoners
and the second period bore the impact of monotheism of Islam religion.
Naturally, the presence of Islam in India posed a danger to the Hinduism.
Hence, the bhakti movement was one of the solutions to the problems in
the then India. The second reason was the defeat of Hindus at the hands of
the Muslim rulers. Prof. K.N. Panilkar says that the Hindus Were
incre dibly fed up with the atrocities of the Muslims for several centuries.
They, therefore, sought solace in the bhakti and the movement began.
Max Weber says that bhakti movement was the ideology of a defeated
ruling class. Some other scholars say that bhakti movement grew and
spread as a defense mechanism in north India. As a matter of fact the
Muslim invasions on India converted Hindus to Islamism f orcibly, this
fact awakened the Hindus philosophers and saints, who began to
advocate reforms in the religion. Thus, the movement began in India.
Even, there was a group of people that was not happ y with the highly
philosophical exposition of Hinduism. Therefore, the saints advocated a
set-up which was easily comprehended by the people and the movement
began in the country.
As there were some several factors responsible for the rise of the
movement, there were some important features of the movement. As the
bhakti movement saints opposed to the several social evils in the society
and paved the way for reforms in the society. These saints criticized on
the idol worship and professed that God has no colour, no shape and sign;
they protested the rites and rituals and said that God needs pure devotion
only. The saint never claimed as they initi ated any new rel igion but they
were in favour of unity of God and the importance of Guru in the
attainment of Salvation.
As the bhakti movement was initiated by several saints, among them
saints like Dyaneshwara, Namdeva, Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Na nak,
Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Nimbarka, V allabhacharya and Ch aitanya
were very active and due to their contribution only, the movement began
spread and flourished in every part of the country. Bhakti movement
brought out several c onsequences as it developed the local and
regional languages, the rise of Sikh religion t ook place there , it brought
about social re generation as these saints criticized on the out dated rites,
rituals, castes, untouchability and many other social evils.

munotes.in

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47 4.7 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning, origin and concept of Bhakti mo vement.
2. Examine the circ*mstances that led to the rise of Bhakti
movement.
3. Discuss briefly abou t the major saints of Bhakti movement.
4. Analyze the important features of Bhakti movement. What were its
effects?
4.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Satish C handra, Medieval India, Hara nand Publications Pvt.
LTD. New Delhi
2 Satish Candra, Introduction to Savitri Chandra's social life and
concepts in Medieval Hindi-Bhakti Poetry, Delhi. 1983.
3. Satish Chandra, Parties and Politics at the Mughal court.Del hi.
4. A. L. Srivastava, The Sultanate of Delhi, Delhi.


munotes.in

Sufism

49 Sufism. As a matter of fact, both Hindus and Muslims had mutual
admiration for each others culture, since the early days of the advent of
Islam into India. Famous Muslim scholars and saints lived and laboured in
India during the medieval period. They helped the dissemination of the
ideas of Isla mic philosophy and mysticism in India. The early Sufis traced
their ideas to some verses of the Quran and Tradition of the prophet
(Hadis). However, they gave a mystic interpretation that they differed
from the orthodox Muslims who insisted upon a literal interpretation.
They lived as ascetics, wearing garments of coarse wool (suf) as a badge of
poverty. From ‘suf’ derived the name sufi. The spiritual coexistence
established with Bhakti cults in North India has difference colors in
medieval Indian culture which has unity and secular values in Indian
society for national integration.
5.2 ORIGIN OF SUFI MOVEMENT
Sufism is typical mysticism. According to Tarachand, 'sufism is a complex
phenomenon, it is like a stream which gather volume by the joining of
tributaries from many lands. Its original source is Quran and the life of
Muhammad. Christianity and neo -platorism swelled it by a large
contribution. Hinduism and Buddhism supplied a number of ideas and
the religions of ancient Persia Zoroastrianism etc. bro ught to it their share
is. The Islamic mysticism, known as Tasawwaf or sufism, was as old as
Islam itself. It was born in the bosom of Islam. It is said that during the very
lifetime of Prophet Hazarat Muhammad there were some men of virtue
and of retiring nature who embraced Islam with pleasure but showed
laity in the observation of its ritualistic or dogmatic aspects. Such liberal
minded men of God drew their inspiration from the Quran and the life of
the Prophet. But instead of parading about their relig ious orthodoxy, they
laid greatest stress on the purification of one's inner self in order to attain
acting spiritual.
Sufism had no creed or dogma other than that of Islam and for a long time,
it had no organization or monastic order. It is said that it a ssumed the form
of a regular movement in Persia in the ninth century as a reaction against
the rigid formalism of Islam. It received a theosophical basis during the
age of Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad and the sufi saints drew freely from the
mystic concepts o f other peoples and religions, including Christianity,
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The credit for bringing about
reconciliation between orthodox Islam and sufism goes to Al Ghazali
(1057 -1112 A) an Arab Philosopher. He provided a metaphysical basis to
mysticism as a part and parcel of the Islamic theology.
In Eight century, the Arabs and Iranians (Persians) who sailed from
Yemen and the Persian Gulf controlled the trade between Indian
subcontinent and China in the East Asia, middle East and Egypt -
Mediterranean Sea region. The Zamorin of Calicut is believed to have
patronized Arab merchants in Kerala coast. Many locals of Kerala,
Lakshadweep Islands and Ceylon embraced Islam. The Sufi orders and
the saints from various cults came to India with these merchants. These
Sufis worked as experts in religious law (Sharia), Imam in congregational munotes.in

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51 As – Saf al -Awwal: Some Sufis claim that Sufism comes from
As-Saff al -Awwal (First Row) ‘standing before the Hands of
Allah, the Most Mighty and Most, Majestic, by virtue of the
high determination and eagerness towards Allah in their hearts
and by positioning their inner m ost before Him’.
As – Safaa : On the Sufis claim that the term is derived from As
– Safaa which means clearness, purity, sincerity.
As-Suf: Many Sufis from the past and present consider that the
term Sufism refuse to the wearing of woolen clothing (soo f).
This is also the opinion of Shaykh ul -Islam Ibn Taymeeyah.
Also Ibn Khaldoon inclined to this opinion in his famous
Muqaddimah.
Tasawwuf, an Arabic term, is generally translated as Sufism.
The term for the process of realizing ethical and spiritual i deals;
meaning literally – becoming a Sufi. The ideal Qualities evoked
by their derivations are the key to the concept of Tasawwuf as
formulated by authors of the tenth century, such as Sulami (d.
1021 AD), while acknowledging that the term Sufi was not
current at the time of the Prophet. Sufi theorists maintained that
this specialization in spirituality arose in parallel with other
disciple such as Islamic law and Quaranic exegesis. But the
heart of Sufism, they maintained, lay in the ideal qualities of th e
Prophet Muhammad and his association with his followers.
Sufism described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as
teaching tools to open up the possibilities of the soul. In
practice, the term Sufi was often reserved for ideal usage, and
many othe r terms described particular spiritual qualities and
functions, such as poverty (faqir, darvish), knowledge (alim,
arif), mastery ( pir) etc.
Check your Progress:
1) Give an account of origin of Sufi Movement.
5.3 NATURE OF SUFISM
The sufis were men of deep religious feelings. They led ascetic lives and
laid emphasis on the practices of self discipline. They sought personal
communion with God through self -surrender, meditation and total
dedication to the service of mankind. The sufis did not form an orga nized
sect. They neither had a Prophet, nor a sacred book, nor a uniform code of
religious doctrines. They accepted Muhammad as their prophet and the
Quran as their sacred book According to an observation, the orthodox
Muslims depend upon external conduct while the sufis seek inner purity.
The orthodox believe in blind obedience to, or observance of religious
rituals while the Sufis consider love to be the only means of reaching God.
The sufis used singing and dancing, forbidden by the orthodox as means munotes.in

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53 creator (Haq) and the created (Kha lq) were identical. Means God was the
Unity behind all plurality and the Reality behind all phenomenal
appearance. Sheikh Muhiuddin Ibnul Arabi, the author of the theory,
explain it in these words, 'There is nothing but God, nothing in existence
other than He, there is not even a there', where the essence of all things is
one.'
The sufis stood for the establishment of harmonious relationships with
God could be attained in this very mortal life (Khaki Jame) through
intense love for and total surrender and de dication to the Supreme Power.
The sufi saints, in their capacity as pirs were the living teachers or spiritual
guides. They showed the path and suggested the means to their followers,
called (murids) for the attainment of eternal bliss which was called un ion
(ma'rifat and wasl) by them. According to sufi saints, the presence of the
God could be felt by any one who attended to his call with a loving heart.
The Sufis held that God was an invisible. Absolute Reality and an Eternal
Beauty which they named as J amal and this universe was not a mere
illusion either. It was the visible manifestation of God and it was named as
Husn (lovable beauty). They argued that 'self manifestation and desire to
be loved was an essential attribute of the Eternal Beauty. Thus the sufi
philosophy was based on the principal of 'Love' which was the essence of
all the religions.
Sufis felt that purity of heart was far greater than rituals and ceremonies
and that it was only way by which truth could be realised. According to
one versio n, a sufi had to pass through ten stages of dedication to God
before he could attain communion with him, these were
Tauba(Repentance), ware (Abstinence), Zuhd (Piety), Faqr (Poverty), Sabr
(Patience), Shukr(Gratitude) and Khauf (fear), Raja (hope), Tawakku l
(contentment) and Riza (submission to the Divine will). Some of the sufi
saints observed celibacy while other married and lived as ordinary
householders. Like the bhakti reformers, most of the sufis renounced the
materialistic pursuits of the world. it w as called ' Tark Ki Dunya'. They
mostly depended on `futuh' or 'unasked fort charity'. Some of them took
up to the cultivation of waste land as the means of their livelihood. The
sufilived in the hermitages, called 'khanqahs' (monasteries) or
jamaitkhana.
Check your Progress :
1) Describe nature and meaning of Sufi movement.
2) Comment on the concept and teaching of the Sufism.
5.5 SILSILAS OR ORDERS IN SUFISM
Just like the bhakti reformers, the sufi also differed with one another in
many respects as reg ards their methods of teaching. That is why, in the
final phase of its development sufism came to be organised into a number
of silsilas or orders. The founder of each silsila was said to have made
some special contribution. They gave an individualistic to uch of the munotes.in

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55 Surhravardi silsilah was confined mostly to upper strata of the Mughal
society.
Many other sufi mystic orders also were introduce d in India. But they did
not make much impact on the people of India. Some others silsilah were
limited to certain regions only some of them were:
The QadiriSilsilah - introduced in India by ;‘,Iyyid Muhammad Gilani
(1517), The Firdausi Silsilah Shaikn Bad ruddin. The Shattari Silsilah -
Shaikh Abdullah Shattari. The Nagshahandi Silsilah - Khwaja Baki Billah.
In the fourteen century the influence of the sufis declined. They were
weakened by doctrinal differences among themselves as also by the
unfriendly att itude of some of the muslim rulers. However, sufis played an
important role in spreading the muslim culture among the masses in
various parts of the country. Sufism also contributed to a great extent in
moulding the character of the medieval Indian society .
5.5.3 Sufism in Deccan: After the Khilji and Tughluq dynasty
Deccan ruled by Bahamani rulers. Bahamanis conquered
Telangana in 1373 AD and Warangal in 1421, and the coastal
Andhra 1472 AD. On the dissolution of the Bahamani Empire in
1482, its dominions were distributed into the five Muslim states
of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednager, Bihar and Berar. Berar
Imadshahi had been annexed by Nizam Shahi Ahmednager in
1572, and Bidar (Baridshahi) was absorbed by Bijapur in 1109.
Ahmednager was conquered by Mughals in 1616 AD, Bijapur, in
1686, and Goldkonda in 1688. Nizam ul Mulk established the
seat of an independent government at Hyderabad and
Aurangabad in 1724. In thirteenth century, Ala ud Din Khilji
conquered Deogiri Yadava state (now Daulatabad, in Dist.
Aurangabad). That time many disciples of Nizam ud Din Auliya
Dehlawi migrated to Daulatabad, Khuldabad (Rauza) and
Aurangabad. Shaikh Nizam ud Din Auliya sent to Khwaja Aziz
ud Din Chishti and Kamal ud Din Chishti to Deccan. They were
grandsons of Shaikh Ni zam ud din Auliya’s spiritual master
Shaikh Farid ud Din Ganj I Shakar. Khwaja Aziz ud Din settled
at Daulatabad.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq took historic decision to make Devgiri
(Daulatabad) ‘a second administrative city / capital’, of his
Empire. He forced the ‘ulama and the mashai’kh of Delhi to
migrate to Daulatabad (Deogiri). Many of the Saints who left for
Daulatabad like Shaikh Burhan ud Din Gharib Maulana Fakhru
ud Din Zarradi Amir Hasan Sijzi, Syed Yusuf Raju Qattal
Husaini (father of Syed Muhammad Ge su Daraz of Gulbarga),
Khwaja Husain, Khwaja Umar and other Chishti saints were
brought up in the Chishti mystic traditions of Shaikh Nizam ud
Din Auliya and had imbied from him the Chishti mystic
principles. Shaikh Burhan ud Din Gharib was the senior most
disciple of Shaikh Nizam ud Din Auliya. Maulana Ghulam Ali munotes.in

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57 Asia to Aurangabad during Mughal rule. Their shrine known as
Panchakki Naqshbandi Dargah in Aurangabad today. In the
1860, one British visitor, Major Robert Gill, wrote about
Panchakki in 1864 that, ‘the place is much resorted to by the
English for purposes of eating and drinking: by the Moslems,
and even Hindoos, in honor of the Peer (Shah Musafir), and for
purposes of venera tion’. Nizamuddin Chishti Aurangabadi
Dargah also famous in Aurangabad. These shrines has many
grants and properties sanctioned by Sultanate period to Maratha
rule. Shivaji Maharaj also visited the Khanqah of Baba Yaqoot
Sarwari of Kelashi, near Suwarnd urg, Ratnagiri. He granted
land for mosque and shrine there. Baba Yaqoot died in 1681.
His Dargah is famous today in Konkan region.
Check your Progress :
1) Assess the achievements of Chisti Silsila.
2) Explain the Sufism in Deccan.
3) Write the Sufi cen ters of Maharashtra.
3) Explain the Suhravardi Silsilah in Sufism.
5.6 BHAKTI CULT AND SUFISM
Hinduism particularly Bhakti cult and sufism largely borrowed from each
other. They were complementary to each other in several respects. Bhakti
cult in medieval times was radically different from old traditions. Many
Sufi Silsilas has spiritual relations with Yogi Nath cult people in North
India. They practices breath control practices for recitation (Zikr). String
similarities between sufism and Bhakti cult were as follows.
Concept of lanai in Sufism was originally a Hindu idea. Approach to God
is through love and intelligence or Yogic exercises or 'Karma' are hurdler,
is the central idea of Bhakti, which we find reflected in sufism also.
Submission to pir or Guru, recitation of sacred names of God is both
common in Bhakti and Sufi Cults. Vedent Philosophy of Shankaracharya
found in Sufism also. It is due to the simplicity and broad humanism of
Sufi Saints, Islam received its largest number of converts. These two
parallel movements based upon doctrines of love and self -less devotion,
helped a lot in bringing the two communities closer together. The eastern
version of Sufism which was in Bengal, Assam and Bihar was an offshoot
of Vedanta of the Hindus. These two cults also brought cultural synthesis.
Bhakti cult and Sufism emerged and became powerful forces because both
Islam and Hinduism became orthodox, rigid. Saints in Bhakti and sufi cult
found a personal method of self -expression, a convenient vehicle for
intellectual, philosophical and emotional enjoyment for spiritual
attainment.
The Marathi school of Vaishnavism or the Bhagavata Dharma
has a long history. By the close of the 13th century, steady
enrichment and vigor was imparted to the Bhakti movement in munotes.in

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59 According to Tara Chand, the Marathi literature and culture
developed in Medieval Maharashtra region with the synthesis o f
Muslim mystics and ruling elites. From the end of the thirteenth
century and the middle of the fourteenth century, Muslim rulers
had not only completely conquered the Deccan but the
established an independent Muslim kingdom there. The
Bahamani rulers of the Deccan like their contemporaries in
Bengal, fostered the growth of the literature and art of the
people whom they governed. The Marathi language was used in
the offices of the Adilshahi and Qutb Shahi kingdoms, and
Marathas were employed as revenue off icers and even as
commandants. Qutb Shah was a patron of culture and himself a
poet of considerable power, and wrote extensively in the
Dakhani language which was a mixture of Hindu and Persian.
The Marathi saints and hymn singers affected the same kind of
synthesis of the two faiths as was done by Kabir and Nanak in
the north India. The poetry of Baba Farid Chishti has been
noted in Guru Granth Sahib of Sikh religion.
Mahadev Govind Ranade described the beginning of the
movement thus: ‘The severity of the monotheistic creed of the
Muhammadan was distinctly impressed upon the minds of these
personalities (Kabir, Nanak and others). The worshippers of
Dattatraya or the incarnation of the Hindu Trinity, was oftern
closhed their God in the garb of a Muhammadan Faqir. Kamal,
the son of Kabir wrote about Namdev in his poem (Hindi):
“Dakhanmai Nama darzi, Unko Banda Vitthal hai,
Aur seva kuch nahi jaane andar bhitar keshav hai ||
Uchar Myaane Bhayo Kabira ramacharankaa bandaa hai
Unko put hai Kamal donoka b olbalaa hai ||”
Kamal, the son of Kabir said that, Saint Namdev was bounded
by the Bhakti of Shri Vitthal of Pandharpur. He had the Bhakti
of Keshava inside and outside. And Kamal has the very respects
about Kabir and Namdev.
This same influence was at work with greater effect on the
popular mind in Maharashtra, where preachers, both Brahmans
and non -Brahmans, and ensure their freedom from the bonds of
formal ritualism, and caste distinctions, and unite in common
love of man and faith in God. As early as the twelfth century the
Marathi language had pushed Sanskrit out of the administrative
and literary spheres. A significant role in the cultural
development of the region and in heightening the people’s self -
consciousness was played by Dnyaneshvar (end of the thirteenth
century) who wrote a Marathi version of the Bhagvadgita. After
him Marathi literature developed rapidly and one of the main
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61 Qadiri. His name is quated in ‘Shijara -i- Quadiri’, by Shaikh
Muhammad Shrigondekar Sayyad as Sayyad Chandsaheb Qadiri.
Chand Bodhale was the Guru of Shaikh Muhamm ad
Shrigondekar and Swami Janardan of Dualatabad.
Shaikh Raje Muhammad Qadiri
↓
↓ Shaikh Chand Bodhale Qadiri ↓
Shaikh Muhammad Shrigo ndekar Swami Janardan → Saint Eknath of Paithan

The tomb of Chand Bodhale Qadiri situated at Daulatabad near
Fort. This Dargah visited by Hindu and Muslim devotees.
Many Marathi and other regional language literature with folk
touch had been develope d between fifteenth to Nineteenth
century. Number of Muslim poets and author has been
contributed Marathi literature in Medieval Maharashtra. These
authors were influenced from Jain, Shaiv, Mahanubhav, Nath,
Bhagvat Varkari sects. Shaikh Muhammad, Shah Mun di, Husain
Ambar Khan, Jamal Shah, Allam Khan, Shaikh Sultan etc.
authors had contributed Marathi literature. These curious
literature facets had made synthesis culture with harmony in
Medieval Maharashtra. Allamkhan was the devotee of Nagesh
cult in medie val Marathwada. Bhanji Trimbak Deshpande wrote
the book on Nagesh cult, ‘Nageshlilamrut’, in 1824. In this
book, he wrote the ‘Alamkhan Aakhyan’, in 39th chapter. The
Samadhi (tomb) of Alamkhan situated at Karali Karle in
Osmanabad District of Marathwada. He wrote the spiritual
Abhang on Nagesh Nath. He was very famous today in this
region.253 Ajam was the Muslim Marathi poet in seventeenth
century Maharashtra. He was one of the disciples of Shaikh
Muhammad Shrigondekar. Ajam’s folk Aarti lyrics are famou s
today to the glory of Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar Saheb, in
District Ahamadnagar.
Hazrat Ladle Mashaykh Raghavchaitanya (c. 1460 – 1560) was
the Marathi saint of Datta sect in Marathwada – Karnataka
frontier region. Muslim called him as Hazrat Mashaykh Aland
Sharif Awliya. Hindu, Jain and Lingayat Veershaiv devotees
called him as ‘Sadguru’, the best teacher / guide. His tomb or
Samadhi situated at Aland, District Gulbarga.255 Shah Muni alias
Sahsen (1730 – 1808) was originally from northern India. His
parents migrated to Maharashtra and settled at Shrigonda,
Ahmadnagar. He had born at Shrigonda. He wrote Sindhant
Bodh. He died at Shah Gad, Beed. Husain Ambarkhan (1603 –
1653) was famous Marathi poet in seventeenth century
Maharashtra. He wrote ‘Ambarhus aini’, the edited book on Gita,
after Dnyaneshwar. His gitatikaa was contained 871 lines in
Marathi. In his words, that was the Gita Bhavarth Dipika. His munotes.in

History of Maratha
62 father Yakut Khan, was a servant at Daulatabad fort in
Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar. Vaijyanath of Tanjor (Tamil Nadu)
has written in his book ‘Chidambarjayanti Strot’, about Ambar
Khan.
Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar was the famous Marathi
Muslim Sufi saint in seventeenth century Marathwada. He was
from Dharur village. He wrote Yogsangram, Nishkalank Bodh,
Pawan Vijay and Dnyansagar. His devotees are both Hindu and
Muslim come to his Dargah / Samadhi at Shrigonda. Shaikh
Muhammad known as ‘Kabir’ of Maharashtra. His father was
Raje Mahammad and mother Phulai. He was belonged to Qadiri
Sufi silsila.
Spiritual Genealogy of Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar
Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdada, Iraq)
↓
Sayyad Abdul Razzak Tajoddin Qaudiri
↓
Sayyad Mahammad Gaus Gwalihery Qadiri (Gwaliar)
↓
Shaikh Raje Muhammad Qadiri
Sayyad Chand Saheb Qadiri (Spiritual guide of Swami Janardan
of Daulatabad)
Sayyad Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar.
Shaikh Muhammad wrote in ‘Yogasangram’:
“Namo Shri Chand Bodhale.
Yani Jyanopanta Angikarile.
Jyanobane Ekaa Upideshile.”

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63 Muslim Marathi Poets
Name Place of
Death /
Region Features /
Writings /
Relations with
Sects Political
Dominion
Allam Khan alias
Allam Prabhu
(14th Century) Karali -Karli
(Dist.
Osmanabad)
Shrine Nagesh Sect,
Devotees come
both Muslim and
Hindu Tughalaq
Period in
Deccan
Hazrat Ladle
Masha ykh
Raghvachaitanya
(1460 -1560) Aland
(Gulbarga) Relation with
Datta
Sampradaya. Bahamani
Empire
Shah Allam
Prabhu
(1478 -1538) Daulatabad
Dist.
Aurangabad Famous as
Malang Fakir of
Datta Cult Bahamani
Empire
Husain
Ambarkhan Marathwada
periphery He wrot e
‘Ambarhusaini’,
in Marathi, the
translation of
Bhagvad Geeta Nizam Shahi of
Ahmednagar
Chand Bodhale
Sayyid Quadiri Daulatabad Fort Sufi Pir Nizam Shahi of
Ahmednagar
Shah Muni
(14th Century) Shah Gad
(Beed) Marathi poerty Nizam Shahi
Shaikh
Muhamma d
Shrigondekar (17th
Century) Samadhi /
Dargah at
Shrigonda in
Dist.
Ahmednagar ,
originally from
Dharur, Beed Well Known as
‘Kabir’ of
Maharashtra.
Author of
‘Yogsangram’. Mughal Empire
Check your Progress:
1) Write a note on Bhakti cult and Sufism i n Maharashtra.
2) Explain the contribution of Muslim authors in Marathi literature.
5.7 SUMMARY
They early Sufis were known for their asceticism. They thought that it was
the world that distrached their attention from God. The Chisti and the
Suhravardi order helped the rulers in their own way by creating a climate
of opinion in which people belonging to different sects and religious could
live in peace and hormony. While Mecca remained the holy of holies, the
rise of popular sufi saints provided a useful point of veneration and
devotion to the mass of Muslims within the country. Even today many
Hindu and Muslim devotees visited the Sufi shrines on occasion of Urs
festival (death anniversary). District administration announced local
holidays for the Urs f estivals in many places. Many rulers sactioned Waqf munotes.in

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65 10. Pagadi, Setu Madhavarao. Sufi S ampraday (Marathi),
Parchura Prakashan, Mumbai 1953
11. Nizami, K.A. Some aspects of Religion and Politics in India
During the Thirteenth Century, Published by the Department
of History, Muslim University, Aligarh 1961
12. Carl W. Ernst. 2004. Eternal Garden: Myst icism, History,
and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.

13. Pathan, U. M., Musalman Sufi Santanche Marathi Sahitya
(Marathi), Maharashtra Rajya Sahitya Aani Samskriti
Mandal, Mumbai 2011

14. Tara Chand. Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad
1954

15. Trimingham, J. Spencer, ‘The Sufi Orders in Islam’, Oxford
University Press, London 1973

16. Hamid Hussain, Sufism and Bhakti Movement: Eternal
Relevance, Manak Pub., Delhi 2007


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Village Communities
85 This financial arrangement continued generation to generation under the
paternal supervision of the Maratha Government. This is the Governme nt,
which gave free hand to the village comm unities in economic
development and helped it to be self-sufficient and self-reliant village
communities.
6.6 QUESTIONS
1. Give a brief account of the village comm unities during the period of
Marathas.
2. Br iefly discuss the important components of the village
communities under the Marathas.
3. How far was the village comm unities self-sufficient and self-
reliant during Maratha Period? Discuss it with suitable
examples.
4. Examine the position of Industrial organization and financial
arrangement in the village communities during the period of Marathas.
6.7 ADDITIONAL REEDINGS
1) A. R. Kulkarni - Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji
2) A. R. Kulkarni & G. H. Khare Mara thyancha Ititas.
3) S. N. Sen - Administrative system of the Marathas.
4) Elphinstone -A report on Territories Conquered from the Peshwa.
4) Altekar - Village comm unities in western India.


munotes.in

Social Strueture :Caste and
Class
97 surfaced because the caste in India has always been functioned as a
political power myth, which is widely accepted by majority mostly rural
India.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS
1. What are the different theories of origin of caste?
7.5 SUMMARY
Caste is a largely static organization, it is exclusively social class and its
membership is determined by the birth. It is involved with particular
customary restrictions and based on certain privileges. Cas te is derived
from the Portuguese word casts meaning breed, race or kind and used
first to denote the Hindu social classification on the Indian subcontinent.
There are several theories regarding the origin of caste in India as the
traditional Sanskritic theory, the Racial Approach theory, the Family
and Gentile theory, the Occupational theory and the theory of
Stratification of society. These theories are not unanimous and give
different accounts of the origin of caste but they agree that it became
hereditary, stagnated and stationary and it also lost its original elasticity
with the passage of time.
The main object of studying the caste system during the period of
Marathas is to try to estimate the influence of the system on that society.
During this period caste became comparatively st able, succeeded the
period of flux in which it broke into subcastes and organized into close
social units with fixed social cum-ritual status which governed the nature
and extent of inter- caste relationship. There were several features and
aspects of the caste of this period. As caste of the person was determined
by his birth, it was neither possible for him to change his caste nor escape
the ignominy of his caste. Even the person changed his religion, he was
unab le to escape the rules and regulations of his caste. The caste of the
person was attached to his occupation. According to Ghurye, each caste
was attached with certain occupation. The community never permitted to
follow any other occupation other than its own occupation. The caste
established a system of hierarc hy in the society on the basis of
ceremo nial purity and the negative ritual purity. Naturally, this created
taboos on commensality, marriage connections and on several issues of
social intercourse. It denied several civil rights to lower castes, imposed
various social and rel igious disabilities and generated rivalries among
lower caste on the ritual status in the society. Caste as an
organization, had a caste council and its head. This head had several
rights and privileges for administering the caste organization. Alt hough,
some people pointed out some advantages for their own interest there
were several disadvantages of caste during the period of Marathas.

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106 9
SLAVERY AND VETHBEGARI

Unit Struct ure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources of Slavery Under the Marathas
9.3 Nature Of Slavery Under the Marathas
9.4 Male Slavery
9.5 Slave Trade
9.6 Female Slavery
9.7 Position of Sales in The Society
9.8 Manumission
9.9 Bonded Labour
9.10 Summary
9.11 Question
9.12 Additional Readings
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to
1. Understand the meaning and origin of slavery.
2. Know the various sources of slavery.
3. Co mprehend the nature of slavery which was existed unde r the
Marathas.
4. Understand the male and female slavery.
5. Know the scope of slave trade during this period.
6. Comprehend the position of slaves in the Maratha society.
7. Understand whether manumission was considered under the
Marathas.
8. K now the system of Bonded labour and the jobs for which
bonded labourers were yoked. munotes.in

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119 7. understand gardens, forest and colonization during the period of Marathas. 10.1 INTRODUCTION Land was the main profession of the people during the period of Marathas. It was the basic support of the economic position of the Marathas. Although, there were some activities of trade and commerce, agriculture was indispensable, because almost all commodities produced in agriculture were used for trade and commerce in addition to food for survival of the people. Consequently, farmers or cultivators used to call land as mother earth. It is to be noted that the principle of private property in connection with land was agreed . It is evident from the transactions like sale and purchase of land , mortgage and gift of land , and direct settlement of revenue between the king and the cultivators, that the cultivators had property rights in land during the period of Marathas. Although, the private property was agreed upon , all people shared the agricultural production proportionately, as per their contribution to the cultivation of land. 10.2 DIVISION OF LAND Land under the Marathas was divided into various categories on the basis of its use done by the people as 1. The land let out to permanent landholder for the purpose of cultivation. 2. crown or domestic land. 3. Forest land and 4. Waste land. The Cultivable land or arable land was divided into (1) Jirayat (2) Bagayat land. Jirayat land is further categorized into 1. superior 2. inferior 3. ordinary 4. rockey land 5. marshy land 6. salty land and so on. While the Bagayat or irrigated land was divided into 1 Patasthal and 2. Motasthal. The classification of land was done in ancient period also. Aryachanakya or Vishnugupta or Kautilya, a great diplomat and political philosopher wrote ‘Arthashastra’ and divided land in various classes as flower gardens, fruit gardens, vegetable gardens , wet field , field where crops were grown by sowing roots for seeds, which was popularly known as Malvapati and forest as game forest, timber forest, and elephant forest. Kautilya made a clear distinction between the sita or produce from grown land and bhaga or portion of agricultural production payable to the king as a revenue. The Marathas accepted some of the important features of the Muslim rule regarding the land system. They also adopted several outstanding features of the land system prevailed in older Hindu system in India. This so happened that the officials like Deshmukh and Deshpande who worked in the pre- Muslim administration continued in their positions hereditarily with their title and the inam or watan granted to them. Naturally, the land system under the Marathas was a sum total of all better systems prevailed in the country. The most of the land in the village apart from the waste land, forest land or the land controlled by the Government was called as Thals or Estates. The people who were cultivating it came to be known as Thalwahiks. But in later period Thalwahiks came to be popularly known as Mirasdars means the people munotes.in

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120 holding the land with hereditary proprietary rights. The Thals or Estates were divided into sub divisions. These sub- divisions were headed by various individuals or kin groups of mirasdars which came to be known as Jathas of mirasdars. The jathas was jointly responsible for the payment of revenue, taxes or any dues in connection with the land which they held with proprietary rights. The each member of the Jatha of mirasdar could cultivate its share of the land as he wished or he could lease out that portion of land to somebody else for more production but the each member of the Jatha was responsible for the payment of the revenue jointly. This arrangement of joint payment was made to ensure the whole payment of the revenue. Even if one of the Jathas could not pay the revenue ,there were other members of the Jatha to pay the revenue in toto. Despite the division of land into various Jathas, there was one more division of land and that was called inam land or Watan land. These inams or watans were granted to several people and institutions on several grounds by the king or the Government. Such land holders were religious institutions like temples, mosques, Samadhis, Varshasanas, artisans and village officials, which later on became hereditary Watandars. Thus, these were some of the divisions of land under the Marathas. 10. 3. NATURE OF LAND The nature of land in two divisions of the kingdom of Marathas differed from each other, these divisions were 1.Desh and 2.Konkan 3.1 In Desh- the land differed from place to place and it was of following nature 3.1. Deep Dark Soil. Almost this land was formed of the weathering of the rock traps and constituted the major portion of land in this division. 3.2 . Reddish Blend Land. 3.3. Light Black 3.4 Light Brown 3.5 Black and Light Brown, found in the platue of Deccan. 3.6. Red Land, found in hilly areas. 3.7. Rich Alluvial land. or Malai Land, found along the different banks of rivers and popularly came to be known as malai land. 1 Konkan Division : - In comparison with Desh , the land in this region was not fertile . The land available in this region was of the following kinds as : - munotes.in

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121 2 Reddish Brown : - This was the land found along the slopes of hills and in some plains . This land was formed of the disintegration of laterite traps. 3 Black soil , was rare but found in Thane district. 3 Alluvial soil , found in Kolaba district. 4 .Rich Alluvial soil , found along the banks of rivers. 5 Barren land , found everywhere , came to be known as varkas land . This land was divided into two types as malvarkas and dongri varkas. Malvarkas land was found in the plains of konkan where plough was used to cultivate it. It was also known as Autland and saplings were used for replantation. While dongri varkas land was found along the hill slopes which was cultivated only with the help of manual labour . 6. Kharpat or Salty land:- This land contained salinity of varying degree, found along the creeks near the sea coast and very much fertile and favourable for garden crops. Cattle manure was mostly used to increase and improve the fertility of any kind of soil during the period of Marathas. In order to improve the fertility of soil, it was kept fallow or uncultivated for some years or a number of sheep were kept haltingly for some days over the piece of such land, whose excreta or dropping enhanced the fertility of soil, when it was mixed in the soil completely, Among the other methods of increasing fertility of soil, the system of crop rotation is the scientific method, used everywhere in the world. 10.4. CULTIVATORS OR PEASANTS DURING THE PERIOD OF MARATHAS:- As per the records available of Maratha period, the cultivator of that period was called variously as Kunbi, Mujeri, Raya or Kulawadi. The word Kunbi is derived from Kulambi or Kutumbika i.e.a husbandman or an individual of the agricultural order in other words a farmer or peasant who undertook the work of forming. Generally, the cultivator belonged to the Maratha class, which was in majority at every village during this period. The general condition of the cultivator was extremely bad and depressing. Causes for Backwardness of cultivators or peasants under the Marathas :- There were causes and circ*mstances which led the farmer or cultivator or peasant to depressing and bad conditions. Following were some of the important factors among them:-1 Uncertain and unpredictable rainfall. 2. Constant Warfares 3. Poor quality of soil 4. lack of credit facilities 5 Lack of fertilisers and insecticides 6. Heavy taxation 7 Backward and old tools and techniques of agriculture 8 General backwardness of cultivator and peasant 9 Availability of meagre land for cultivation . These factors are explained in detail as under : - munotes.in

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122 1. Availability of Meagre land for cultivation :- As per the requirement of population, cultivable land was not available in any village, that led to low production and low per capita income .For example, in Menoli village, Taluka Vai, the total cultivable land was around 120 bighas, out of which first quality land was only 32 bighas means it was only sixteen percent land of the total land occupied by the village. Due to lack of other sources, all members in the family used to be involved in various operations of cultivation of land from ploughing, sowing to harvesting of the crops. As the total land available for cultivation was very meagre, the only hard and sustained labour could fetch the cultivator or the peasant's family a bare subsistence from the land. Thus, lack of adequate land for adequate manpower was the situation during the Maratha power. Due to this only there were standing orders of Chhatrapati Shivaji to his officers and watandars to bring more and more barren land under cultivation. 2. Old means and Techniques of cultivation: - During this period, agriculture was cultivated with the help of old and outdated tools and implements. The method to till the land was very old and ancient. Naturally' the exercise of agriculture did not take place adequately. In absence of good exercise, the fertility of land did not increase and there was no enough agricultural production. As a matter of fact, agriculture or the peasantry under the Marathas had improved tools and appliances like tractors, sowing, thrashing and cutting machines, then the production of agriculture could have increased and the peasantry would have been rich enough. But, this did not happen, the peasant or cultivator continue to till the land with the help of a pair of bullocks and depended upon old ploughs and techniques. Moreover, the peasant used to face another problem of cattle lifters Bullocks were treated as wealth or livestock of the peasant and therefore, the cattle lifters targeted them especially, in the villages of border area or the frontiers of the Maratha kingdom. Chhatrapati Shivaji had taken precautions and issued orders to his officials that they should guard the frontiers of the kingdom and deter the cattle lifters from doing so and if found punished them severely. Chhatrapati Shivaji in order to save the rural economy, began to advance some money to purchase a pair of good healthy bullocks on easy terms. Such amount was later recovered from the cultivator in several fixed installments. It is said that the wealth of a cultivator or peasant was reckoned on the number of ploughs he possessed with him means how many pairs of bullocks he had on that the people used to guess that how many acres of land the peasant might have possessed. This led to project the prosperity of the peasant. Thus, this was the position of cultivator under the Marathas. 3. Lack of Credit Facilities : - Economic life under the Marathas was organized because , barter system was in practice and it functioned well. Whatever the cultivator needed in the process of agricultural activities, for example, agricultural implements like plough, tipan (sowing implement) kolapa (implement used for exercising infant crops ), khurpe(implement used to weed out unwanted grass while the crops is munotes.in

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123 infant ) and so on , were made , remade and repaired by local artisans. A good quality of seeds which the cultivator needed was chosen carefully, from the quality produce of the last year and was preserved for the whole year for the purpose of sowing. But many a times due to crop failure or other exigencies, the farmer was forced to buy them from the open market. Chhatrapati Shivaji being king of great vision ordered his officials to advance loan to such needy cultivators for seeds they required. Almost all people were not lucky to get loan on all occasions on the basis of one or another pretext. Such unlucky peasants were to approach private money lenders, who exploited the peasants the most. The private money lenders charged the peasants almost double the amount of their loan for the period of one year only. The local money lenders were known as Shete and Mahajan recovered almost equal amount to the loan advanced to the cultivator as interest. Thus, such situation affected the economic resources and economic position of the farmer or the cultivator under the Marathas. 4. Uncertainty of Rainfall : - Another problem the cultivator faced was the uncertain and uneven distribution of rainfall. The rainfall was so erratic that the peasants were to be always at the mercy of monsoon. That means many a times there was no rain or excessive rain or scanty rainfall, these situations almost led to the condition like draught in the country. The importance of rains during the time of sowing season is clearly mentioned by saint Tukarama. He says that even if a death occurred at the time of sowing activities, the cultivator covered the dead body with the leaves of trees and undertook sowing activities for the day, after the sowing was over, the Cultivator performed the last rights of the dead body. Therefore, it is said the cultivator was never sure about the production of agriculture, which was based on rainfall. Hence, Chhatrapati Shivaji had made provisions for the construction of water weirds, dams and tanks everywhere. It is said that the territory of Marathas come under the range of south-west Monsoon, it being erratic, recurred often the widespread droughts and famines. Due to lack of other sources of income, the people were forced to migrate to better places for survival. The Government tried its best to encourage the cultivators to undertake irrigational activities to get rid of scarcity of water and reclaim land in order to increase production and store it to be used in time of famine. These and some other more were the efforts of the king to protect the people in his kingdom. These efforts created organic relationship between the king and the cultivators and stimulated sustained development of the kingdom. 5. Protection of Standing Crops:- This had been also a problem faced by the cultivators since the ages. There were several dangers to the standing and ripped crop because it was almost ready to thrash and bring home for consumption. In such situation the crops was to be protected from 1.theft 2.birds3.animals 4.insecticides like rats and rodents. To protect from the theft and animals, the cultivator needed to fence the land ,for this he munotes.in

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124 needed funds. To protect from the birds, he was to employ some people to ward them off by hurling stones or pebbles at the birds through gophan. In the same way he was to create scare in the animals as well as birds, the cultivator found it necessary to put up a scare- crow in the middle of the standing crops. The scare-crow was like a statue of man, it was created with the help of a pole, earthen pot and some old clothes. Rodents were another type of pests who damaged the standing crops totally and deprived the cultivator from reaping fruits of his effort done throughout the year. This was a very serious problem the cultivator or peasant faced during the period of Marathas. 6. Constant warfare : - During this period, cultivators or farmers faced one more problem the constant warfare. The period was insecure, war was the order of the day, everyone wanted to solve the problem on the battle ground , which troubled the peasant much more than anybody else. The army when marched from one village to another for war, requisitioned various things for them as food grains, fodder , clothes from the villagers. When the armed skirmishes used to take place, the cultivators were forced to leave their daily business half-way and run away to safer places for several days. This development affected their lives very much. In addition to this when the army moved from one place to another that time they looted everything, they came across. Their horses used to eat the standing crops or trampled the crops and destroyed the crops in toto. Naturally that added to the unbearable difficulties of cultivators or peasants. Chhatrapati Shivaji realised the unnecessary and irrecoverable loss to the peasantry and poor cultivators. Shivaji , therefore ordered his army officers that no officer should requisition extra provisions and trouble the farmers. But in the period of Peshwa, this was not checked properly, it bore different value as Mulukhgiri and the requisition during the time of recurring warfare continued and became a regular feature . This troubled the cultivators a lot and contributed to worsen the economic position of the people. However, Chhatrapati Shivaji tried to avoid warfare in the territory of Swaraj and carry them in the territory of his enemy. But it was not always possible and many a times, Shivaji was to fight his formidable enemies from within his territories. Therefore, places like South Konkan, Panhala, Kudal, Sawantwadi, Poona, Saswad, Chakan, Vai, Javli, Kalyan and Bhiwandi became the theatres of recurring wars. During the war of independence, the whole Swaraj was in danger, the Mughal army committed several atrocities on the civilians and peasantry and made the life extremely miserable. The enemy soldiers burnt everything, terrorized people in such a way that all cultivators and civilians tried to find out safer place for subsistence. Thus, the constant and recurring warfare made the lives of farmers the most miserable. munotes.in

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125 10.5 RESTORATION OF PEASANTRY The Maratha Government did everything possible to restore and reinstate the cultivators after the incursion or recurrence of adverse incidences. The Government or the king knew very well the plight of the cultivator. After the hard work of the whole year the farmer or the cultivator could earn something for his living. Moreover, everything depended on the cultivator hence, Government tried its level best to avoid the cultivator from fleeing his own village. During the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji all village officers were instructed specially to render every possible help to the cultivator , try to bring more and more land under the cultivation and increase the production in such away that the cultivator should not face any problem in any adverse condition. The hereditary village officers like Patil and Kulkarni were held responsible for sufferings and troubles of the cultivators in the villages under their jurisdiction. These officials were also instructed that they should create favourable conditions to cultivators and provide them protection during the time of exigencies like sowing and harvesting seasons. Because, during these periods mostly thefts used to take place and the fear of total destruction of grain could happen, which affected the life of cultivators. It is said that even if the cultivator killed a thief at such period no Government official held the cultivator guilty for the offence. On the contrary the body of such thief was exposed to the public view in order to create scare in the heart of the people to deter them from committing theft and disturbing the cultivator. Thus, the Government on its part did everything possible to help the peasantry in its welfare and extend protection in every aspect to the cultivator. 10.6. ENCOURAGEMENT TO AGRICULTURE Under the Marathas, every ruler tried to improve the conditions of cultivator and extended its help to protect the agriculture from any damages. The Maratha rulers undertook the following measures to encourage the agriculture as 1. To establish new village and market towns. 2. Find out traders from various other parts and induce them to come and stay in their territory to enable cultivators to exchange commodities and articles with them and create live atmosphere in their territory. 3. They asked officials to trace artisans in the neighbouring kingdom and invite them on various good terms and conditions to inhabit in the kingdom and undertake new articles and artifacts to be sold in markets established recently. 4. There was always dearth of cultivators in the kingdom of Marathas, therefore, officers were always in quest of new cultivators, for which they used to visit other villages to induce the cultivators to come munotes.in

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126 and settle in their village and contribute to the wealth and prosperity of their village and finally the revenue of their king. Chhatrapati Shivaji had formed a policy that the new cultivators were to be provided with daily requirements and appliances needed for cultivating agriculture. For example, a good pair of bullocks, food grain and some money to buy seeds. The money advanced to the new cultivator or pleasant was recovered by the king in easy installments within the period of three to four years without any burden to such cultivator. The Peshwas also confirmed the policy of Shivaji more vigorously. In addition to this a document dated 1774 addressed to Mahadev Nana Shet reveals that Mahadev Nana Shet was the Mamledar of Amod , he was instructed by the Peshwa to bring maximum waste land under cultivation for which he was allowed to advance tagai or loan to the cultivators as incentive to speed up the work. Thus , this helped a lot to Maratha Government to increase their revenue. 5. The most important encouragement to the agriculture was that the Government allowed all farmers whether new or old, whether mirasdars or uparis to reclaim the barren land. One who undertook this task, he was given several concessions as under :- 5.1. One who brings under cultivation the entire rocky ground and puts on it a layer of fertile soil , prepares borders and embankment to the newly prepared land, the cultivator was to be given the half of that new land as inam and the remaining half land was to be given rent free to the same cultivator for twenty years, the same half land should be charged at the reduced rent to the same cultivator for another five years. Then the same cultivator should be charged fully after the total period of twenty five years. 5.2. Any cultivator or peasant, who reclaimed the coastal land was entitled for one fourth land from the recently reclaimed land as inam and the remaining land was to be kept with the same cultivator as rent free land till the recovery of the amount which the cultivator spent on the process of reclaiming the land. Then the certain period was to be fixed for rent free cultivation of the land as incentive for the same cultivator. After fully realization of all amount , the reclaimed land was to be brought under full rent. 5.3. The Government on her own constructed the irrigational facilities for the benefit of cultivators and peasants. 5.4 In case it was not possible to undertake such task, The Government motivated private enterprises to undertake such work and advanced substantial grants for the construction of irrigational facilities. 5. The Maratha Government never charged any fees to the cultivator on his purchase of any bullocks or buffaloes for agricultural purposes during the period of famine, scarcity or any exigency. This policy helped the cultivators very much. Therefore, Scoff-Waring says that the cultivators of Shivaji enjoyed plenty if not peace. The policy, which the Maratha rulers adopted to encourage the farmers and munotes.in

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127 cultivators to reclaim the barren land finds support in various ancient philosophies as Shukraniti, Vidurniti and Kautilyaniti. They all recommended the rulers to grant concessions liberally to cultivators who undertook the task of bringing barren land under cultivation. They further advised the rulers that even the farmers contributed towards the construction of dam, lake or any water storage for the agricultural purpose should also be given the same sorts of concessions which were given for reclaiming the land. 10.7. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION During the Maratha period , the village community was very powerful and functional , means it was a self-supporting unit. This village community regulated the life in villages. The people in villages consumed what they produced or what the villages produced that only they consumed. The production of villages depended mostly on two factors as 1. the quality of land of the village and 2. the availability of water in the village. There were two seasons on the basis of availability of water to the agriculture as 1. Kharip and 2. Rabi. The kharip harvest generally started on the monsoon rains, mostly in the month of June and July, because during this time only the south-west monsoon becomes active and covered the whole region of Maharashtra. The crops , generally thrashed during the Maratha period were Jawar, Bajra, Nagli, Rice, Udid, Mug,Tur and some other pulses. Although the behaviour of this south-west monsoon was erratic, the almost agricultural functions were carried under season only. Therefore, there was no guarantee of sufficient production of agriculture. The Rabi season started in the months of September, October in which crops like wheat, jowar, gram and several other grains of winter season were thrashed. Apart from the kharip and the rabi harvests, continuous production of crops was undertaken whenever and wherever perennial water supply was possible. Naturally, the cultivator having either open well, dam, lake or storage of water could trash the long term and commercial crops like sugarcane, fruits vegetable, turmeric, onions, garlic, tobacco, all vegetables and all cash crops. But such crops needed all irrigated land and the related facilities , which were absent in some parts of the Maratha kingdom. As a matter of fact the requirements of the people of the area determined the agricultural production. The land products and the requirements of the cultivators determined the industrial organization and accordingly professionals were set at a village. Thus, all professionals, industries and the Government activities were directed towards the jointly fulfilment of the needs and requirements of the people and agriculture. 10.7.1 Agricultural Products The agricultural products under the Marathas categorised into five groups as 1. Cereals ,2. Pulses , 3.Oil seeds , 4. Cash crops and 5. Miscellaneous crops. In the Konkan region of Maratha territory , rice and nagli were produced as the staple crops. In addition to these crops the other crops like vari , harik , pulses like gram , blackgram, tur, mug, horsegram, oilseeds like nigar-seeds, sasamum, san-hemp were produced munotes.in

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128 in large quantity. There were certain products popular in certain area as san-hemp, which was produced mostly in Ratnagiri. This san-hemp was used for making fisherman's rope and nets. In the Desh region of the Marathas the crops like Jowar, bajra and cotton were produced in large quantity. In addition to these crops nagli, sava and paddy were also produced. Paddy was produced in the monsoon while wheat was taken in second season. In other crops horse-gram, gram, tur , mug, peas, beans, oil-seeds, linseed, nigar -seed, ground-nuts and safflower were common products in this region. Chillies, sugarcane, tobacco and cotton were the cash crops. The striking feature of these products the chillies, which were produced in the Desh region only. There were two havests or crops were thrashed wherever irrigation facilities were available, otherwise only crop was grown during the whole year. 10.8 IRRIGATION Chhatrapati Shivaji had followed the policy of encouraging farmers to undertake irrigation of their lands, wherever possible either by reclamation of land or digging open well or storing water. Irrigation of land was the only solution to improve production and increase the revenue of king. As the maximum land under the Marathas depended on the monsoon rains, which being erratic and uncertain- needed extensive efforts to irrigate the land on large scale. The land cultivated on monsoon water was called Jirayat whereas the irrigated land was called Bagayat . The Bagayati land used the water of eighter dam or lake by way of canal which was called Patasthal land. This type of irrigation was possible, because construction of dam or lake near a river was feasible and almost all villages participated in such construction of dam for common use. On other hand digging open well was very expensive, it was not possible for every cultivator to undertake it. Moreover, there was no guarantee that the open well would strike water. Even then one who succeeded in striking water and irrigated his land with the open well water that land was called Motasthal land. But such irrigation was limited. Therefore, Government often tried to construct a dam or lake for the use of all people and recovered the expenditure by way of taxes in long term. Some the king also paid for repair of such dams and lakes. Thus, the irrigation was the only way for the Marathas to make people prosperous and increase the revenue of the Government in multiplicity. 10.9. GARDENS AND FORESTS Cultivators under the Marathas not only cultivated Jirayat land but also undertook gardening wherever possible. The land along the sea coast in Konkan region was highly favourable for gardens. In the same way land on the banks of river in the Desh was fertile and yielded much production. In the gardens of Konkan region fruits like mangoes, coconuts , betelnuts pineapples, jackfruits, sweet potatoes and vegetables of different varieties were grown . In gardens of Desh the fruits like munotes.in

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129 grapes , betel leaves sweet-potatoes , figs and vegetables were grown there. As a matter of fact , gardening needed constant attention and continuous work, thenonly it gave maximum production. Therefore, people undertook gardening as a lucrative source of income, it was the source of cash crops. The land under the Marathas also covered several dense forests. The western ghats along the Sahyadri ranges contained large tracts of forests. On the other hand area around Kalyan , Bhiwandi , Shahapur also was surrounded by forests. These tracts of forests contained several important trees, which were used for making different types of ships in the shipyards of Kalyan, Bhiwandi ,and Konkan. Among the trees in the forest used for wood were Amba, nana , hedu, kalamb, asan savi, jambul, sisam , kirja, pata, alva, hirda, mahna. The people in the area also used the woods for agricultural purposes. Amba was deemed the best for agricultural implements while the woods of ain used for construction of building, mansions and forts. Sisam was very popular for making quality furniture. Apart from wood and fuel the forest gave other important products as wax , honey , sealing wax. Even the leaves of some trees were used for bidis , baskets , leaf plates , leaf cups and other useful items. 10.10 COLONIZATION The Jagir of Shahaji contained Poona, Supa, Nagar and Haveli. This was a barren land and was infested by wild wolves, beasts as well as robbers. Naturally, no body preferred to use it as their habitation. Dadoji Kondev, the manager of this Jagir had the responsibility of colonizing the whole area. He took help of local people, who were known as Mavalas . Dadoji Kondev offered them generous rewards for liberating the area from robbers, beasts and wolves. These people were asked to colonize, cut the trees and bring the land under cultivation. Dadoji Kondev rewarded liberally the people who cleared the land and helped to increase the revenue of the jagir. In addition to these efforts, Dadoji established peths and new markets in the area and prevailed upon the traders, artisans to come and stay in the jagir. Thus, Dadoji developed the jagir as one of the prosperous areas of the Marathas. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : - 1. Explain the various types of land in Konkan area. 2. Discuss the various types of land in Desh region of the Marathas. 3. State the factors of backwardness of peasants or cultivators. 4. What did Marathas do to encourage the agriculture ? 5. Discuss the agricultural production under the Marathas. 6. What were the agricultural products under the Marathas? munotes.in

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130 7. What is meant by irrigation ? How was the land irrigated under the Marathas ? 8. Assess the Garden and Forests under the Marathas . 10.11 SUMMARY Land under the Marathas was the main profession of the people, it , therefore, was called mother earth. The agricultural produce was shared by many people like the village officials, artisans and tillers of the soil. This land was divided as Jirayat and Bagayat land. Kautilya categorised distinctly as sita or produce from the crown land and bhaga i.e. portion of produce payable to the Government. The people who held the land with proprietary rights were known as mirasdars, The land was subdivided and was held by individuals or kins of the mirasdars were called Jathas. These Jathas were jointly responsible for the payment of revenue to the Government. Land under the Marathas was of different types. In the Desh area it was as dark deep, reddish black, light black, and light brown. The red land was found in the hilly area whereas light brown was in the plains. The rich alluvial soil was found along the banks of different rivers, which was known as malai land. In the Konkan region, the land was as reddish brown and black soil. The alluvial land was available in the district of Kolaba. In Konkan barren land was called Varkas land. This varkas land was divided into mal varkas and dongri varkas . The barren land in the plain was called mal varkas while the barren land along the hill slopes was called dongri varkas . Due to erratic nature and behaviour of monsoon, conditions of cultivators or peasants were not good. In addition to these, the other factors which affected the conditions of peasants were constant warfares, poor quality of soil , lack of credit facilities, lack of fertilizers and insecticides , heavy taxation, old and backward tools and techniques of cultivating agriculture , general backwardness of peasantry and very meagre or small pieces of good quality agriculture available for cultivation. Government took every step to help and reinstate the farmers after the happening of any adverse incidence. The cultivator could earn hardly something after the efforts of the whole year. Therefore, cultivators and peasants were helped to recover from any incursion or recurrence of adverse situation. Shivaji used to order often the village officers to assist the cultivators in the time of difficulties. Every ruler under the Marathas tried to improve the situation of cultivators. The rulers undertook several measures to encourage them as, they established new village, markets and towns, invited artisans to exchange commodities with them, traced traders in various other parts of the neighboring kingdoms and brought them to their kingdoms. Officials were ordered to help them in any eventuality, not this much the Maratha rulers also brought new cultivators to help the existing cultivators in the work of cultivations. The most important encouragement was that the cultivators were allowed to reclaim the barren land and add to their income and production. These farmers were given munotes.in

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131 concessions variously, as no taxes till twenty-five years. less rent for next five years and no taxes till the whole expenditure was recovered and the farmers reaped good profit in such reclamation. agricultural In production during the Marathas Jawar, Bajra and pulses in the Desh area, while Nagli , rice , Harik and vegetable were produced in the Konkan area . In Rabi season, wheat, gram and sunflower were reaped. Fruits and vegetables were produced in both the regions regularly. The Maratha rulers paid attention on irrigation of agriculture to increase the production and add to the revenue of the king. In order to add to the prosperity , the rulers paid attention on gardening in the kingdom as well as increases in the forest area and its commodities. Dadoji Kondev made special efforts to colonise the area which was given to Shahaji as Jahagir. 10.12 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the nature of land system under the Marathas. 2. Give an account of the conditions of Peasantry under the Marathas. 3. Examine the policy of Maratha rulers of encouragement to agriculture . 4. What were the agricultural products under the Marathas ? 5. What measures did they undertake to increase them ? 10.13 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Atre T . N. , Gavgada . 2. Kulkarni A.R. , Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji . 3. Mooreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb . 4. Sen S. N., Administrative system of the Marathas.  munotes.in

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145 eighty forts”. He sanctioned large amounts for repair and maintenance of his forts. These forts gave their large returns in his war against the Mughals and proved him as the unparallel military leader of the time. S.N.Sen says that Shivaji’s greatness as a military leader has never been contested but his greatness as a civil administrator is still more undoubted. Ranade says that Chhatrapati Shivaji was like Napoleon Bonaparte, a great organizer in his time and builder of civil institutions. His civil administration alone enabled the country to pass without scathe through the dangers which the Maratha country confronted after his death. He further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji did not aspire to found a universal empire under his direct rule but he tried to secure the liberty for his own people, unite them into one nation, make them powerful for self-defense and self-assertion. He had friendly relations with all the chiefs of Golconda, Bednore and Bijapur and never interfered with their spheres of influence. He allowed his brother Vyankoji to retain his father’s jagir to himself in the Southern part of the country. He levied Chouth and Sardeshmukhi on the Mughal possessions only. He made a clear distinction between the Swarajya i.e, the territories directly governed by him and the Moglai, the territories governed by any foreign kings were treated out side his Swarajya. His civil institutions were introduced mainly in Swarajya only and they were also introduced partially to the territories on the line of military forts maintained by him which were to the extreme South of the Peninsula . 12.2. DIFFICULTIES FACED BY SHIVAJI There were several difficulties which Chhatrapati Shivaji was to face while forming his central government. Some of them were long term and some were periodic difficulties, which can be enumerated as under: Disorder and Anarchy:- Before the building of central administration of Shivaji , whole Deccan was in disorder and anarchy . The Mughal had overthrown the Nizamshahi kingdom while the Bijapur Government was not strong enough to establish peace in the region. There were wars fought after a while when the neighbouring area of Poona was depopulated due to several reasons. This area was infested by wolves. Dadoji Kondev was to offer several rewards to the people to kill the wolves and increase the habitation as well as to undertake the work of cultivation after cutting trees and clearing jungle. The people in the area were not educated. They used to be rivals of each other on petty reasons and bloody feuds reigned the day. The strong used to plunder the weak, which formed the normal course of daily routine. These feuds were generated normally on the matter of property, which had more than two claimants. The party that could not possess the property certainly used to kill the rival party even would never spare widows and orphan children. The killing of the rival party never brought to an end to the feuds, that continued forever. The loyalty of an old adherent would often save a pregnant lady or an infant heir in some village or mountains far away from their native place. Such child would never be allowed to forget the damages done to his family. When the munotes.in

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146 child was grown, it was sure that he would definitely take revenge for the dead relatives, the houses plundered and the damages caused to his property. The anarchy of the time had left its marks on the families of old Deshmukhs. For such feuds, anarchy and disorder the Jagdales of Masur and the Jedhes of Rohidkhore were popular. Thus, Shivaji was to overcome this difficulty and bring these people together in his administration, which he did it most efficiently. Importance to Military Exploits:- Chhatrapati Shivaji faced a problem about his assistants and subordinates, who were totally indifferent and incomprehensive about the reorganization and reforms of the civil administration. The art of war as a source of honour and emolument appealed them more than the art of peace. If they had been allowed to follow their inclination, they would have happily renounced the work of consolidation of administration and gone to the war front to fight and defeat the enemy and shown his individual prowess. Not this much, once Nilo Pant Mazumdar had earnestly requested the Chhatrapati to relieve him from his civil duties and allow to render his military services like other warriors and capture forts and territories of the enemy. It is said that Shivaji himself had to convince Nilo Pant Mazumdar that his services in civil capacity were as important as those of a military commander and that would be appreciated as the military exploits of the Peshwa . Thus. Shivaji was to overcome this problem also and build his civil administration. The Problem of Conservation or Reform of Feudalism: - Chhatrapati Shivaji was a very practical king and statesman. He knew that he had several problems and difficulties. He was not able to afford any warfare while consolidating his civil organization. He needed strict discipline, peace and order absolutely for his existence. He was to bring together all chiefs under his banner and consolidated his civil organization. He faced a problem, which was of feudalism, whether it was to be continued or reform should be carried out if decided to continue then to what extent it should be continued or reformed. If the system of feudalism was continued then the problems of internal wars, bloody feuds, anarchy and oppression of people would be prevailed as usual. Shivaji had already seen the panorama in Bijapur and Golkonda Kingdoms where this system was in existence. On the other hand if it was reformed the chiefs who had come under his banner would be dissatisfied and would be reluctant to remain together. Because he was very well aware about the characteristics of watandars and chiefs, whom he had brought under his control. Thus, Shivaji was to solve this problem of watandars who used to consider the interest of their own watan first ,the interest of the country afterwards. General structure of Government:- The king has faced problems regarding the structure of the Government which can be enumerated as under:- The village communities had been in existence since a long time. It was flourished because the system of Central Government was not developed munotes.in

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147 fully and on the other hand the village communities served the needs of the people admirably. Shjvaji, therefore, decided to carry on with the village communities as a part and parcel of the internal organization There were several self-contained officers, who were known as the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes. These officers were originally appointed for revenue collection, they, gradually made their offices hereditary, assumed and exercised their authority as they were sovereign powers. This situation led to develop the system of feudalism, But Shivaji never wanted to prevail this situation because he knew that the existence of feudalism means the negation of a strong monarchy. Shivaji appointed his own revenue officers to negate the importance of the old Deshmukhs and Deshpandes. Although, the old officers enjoyed their old rights and perquisites, they were not in any case able to exercise their tyranny on cultivators. Sabasad says that no rayat was subjected to the jurisdiction and the regulations of the Zamindar, Deshmukh or Deshpandes. Shivaji had weakened them considerably, these feudals were not able to plunder and oppress the rayat. He had conquered some of the territories of the Mughals, the Adilshahi and Nizamshahi in the Desh. Because, in the Desh, these feudals used to recover much more revenue, submitted its very marginal part to the government treasury and kept maximum with them. Thus, the mirasdars and feudals used to be strong enough to challenge the authority of the king. These mirasdars or feudals would construct forts and recruit armed forces for their security. Thus, they became unruly. When Shivaji conquered the territories in the Desh, he demolished all bastions, castles and the strongholds of the feudal lords. Wherever he found important forts, he posted his own garrison. Shivaji never allowed the feudals to control inams as they used to do earlier, he fixed their dues in cash and grains as per yield of the village. The zamindars, the Deshmukhs, the Deshpandes, the Deshkulkarnies, the Patils and Kulkarni were never allowed to build bastions but houses. Thus, these were the difficulties that Shivaji overcame while organising his civil administration. 12.3 THE KING The king was the pivotal point of the administration of the Marathas.He was the only superman who used to run the very difficult administrative machinery. Everyone in the administration like all heads of eighteen Karkhanas, the twelve mahals, officers of secretariat as Fadnis, Sabnis, clerks, military commanders and eight Pradhans used to receive and execute orders of the king .The king was the final authority, without his sanction no one, no department could actualize any design or plan. It is said that even Panditrao, a Brahmin, who was the officer in charge of the ecclesiastical department never tried to take any decision without the sanction of the king. In the same way even Kalush, the all-powerful minister of Sambhaji had had consulted the king to readmit to a repentant munotes.in

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148 renegade into his former caste after he had under gone necessary penance. Naturally, everything depended on the personal ability and qualities of the sovereign king. There was no force to cheek him except his own good sense and the external factors like wars of formidable Muhammadan invaders. Hence, this elaborates administrative system required a very strong and farsighted ruler like the founder of this administration. All the Maratha kings from the founder, Chhatrapati Shivaji to Shahu were the most efficient and powerful kings and were able to carry out the functions of the administration properly and without any hindrances. But after the death of Chhatrapati Shahu due to changed circ*mstances the central administration gradually came under the influence of the Peshwas. Fadnis originally, one of the officers rose to power considerably next to Peshwa and consequently, the central administration was transferred from Satara to Poona. Although, there were gradual changes in The Central administration but there were no changes in the village communities even under. The Peshwas continued them and the provincial administration as earlier. 12.4. THE ASHTA PRADHAN MANDAL The head of Maratha kingdom was the king , he was also the head of the administration . The king was assisted by his Council of Eight Ministers, which came to be known as the Ashta Pradhan Mandal. The Eight Ministers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were as under :- 1. The Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan . 2. The Mazumdar or the Amatya . 3. The Wakins or the Mantri. 4. The Dabir or the Sumanta. 5. The Surnis or the Sachiv. 6. The Pandit Rao , or the Royal Priest. 7. The Senapati or the Commander –in –Chief . 8. The Nyayadhish or the Chief Justice . Malhar Ramrao Chitnis says that the council of eight ministers came into existence at the time of the coronation and almost all ministers had been present at the ceremony. They stood on either side of the throne to pour holy water on the head of the king from gold and silver jars and basins. Sabhasad says that the following ministers of the council of Shivaji had taken part in the coronation ceremony as Moropant , son of Trimbak Pant as Mukhya Pradhan; Naro Nilkantha and Ramchandra Nilkantha as joint Amatya; the son of Raghuvathrao as Panditrao ; Harbirrao Mohite as Senapati; Dattaji Trimbak as Mantri; Ramchandrapant, son of Trimbakji Sondev Dabir as Sumanta; Annaji Pant Datto as Sachiv ; and Niraji Rauji as Nyayadhish. It is said that the Persian designations of some of the officers like Dabir, Surnis, Wakins and Mazumdar clearly suggest that such analogous offices existed in the Muhammadan government of the south. In the same way, there is a reference in the munotes.in

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149 Shukraniti in ancient Hindu polity the Chief Priest and the Chief Justice were the members of the Cabinet. Thus, this is one of the special features of the council of ministers of Shivaji. Justice Ranade says that the council of ministers of Chhatrapati Shivaji was very similar with the British Viceroy’s Executive Council. The Peshwa was Prime Minister, next to the king in the civil and the military administration and used to be in the seat first on the right hand below the throne. The Senapati was in-charge of the military administration and used to be in the seat first on the left hand below the throne. The Amatya and the Sachiv used to be in the seat next to the Peshwa while the Mantri used to be in the seat next below to the Sachiv , who was in-charge of the king’s private affairs . The Sumant was the Foreign Secretary and used to occupy the seat below to the Senapati on the left. The Panditrao came next in succession, who was in-charge of the ecclesiastical department and the Chief Justice was the last to be in seat on the left side. Ranade further says that even in the Modern Government, the same system of organisation is followed. Sen says that although, the Ashta Pradhan Council of Chhatrapati Shivaji had resemblance with that of the Executive Council of the Viceroy , the principles underlying the two were not identical .The viceroy’s council was a bureaucratic set-up and had therein the clear cut division of duties, whereas Shivaji’s Ashta Pradhan Council was an autocratic organisation, for the benefit of his people i.e, his subjects . Shivaji was a practical statesman and acted as a benevolent Despot. His ministers were his trusted servants. They were proud to carry out his instructions and orders for the advantage of the people. There was no any clear-cut division of duties in the council of ministers of Shivaji, six out of his eight members or ministers were to perform the military duties whenever necessary as well as almost all eight ministers were to attend a Hazir Majalasi to hear appeals in both the civil and the criminal cases. 12.5 DUTIES OF THE PRADHANS OR MINISTERS Regarding the duties of the Ashta Pradhan Mandal, the document known as kanujabta i.e. memorandum gives detail account of the same. The memorandum was prepared in the coronation year of the Chhatrapati Shivaji, which gives the account of the duties as under:- The Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan:- He was to perform all administrative work and put his seal on all such letters as a matter of his consideration. He was to prepare for expeditions and wage wars whenever necessary. He was to make necessary arrangements for preservation and retention of the districts which came under the possession of the Marathas and act and execute the orders of the king very strictly . He was to accommodate all military officers within his campaign and lead them successfully as per the orders of the king. The Senapati or the Commander-in- Chief: - He was to maintain the army and prepare for the war and expeditions. He was to preserve the munotes.in

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150 newly acquired territories, keep an account of spoils and act as per the order of the king . He was to bring to the notice of the king that which soldiers were useful to what expeditions as well as lead them all to the battle field. The Amatya or the Mazumdar:- He was to keep the account of income and expenditure of the whole kingdom. In order to get all accounts assessed by him, the Daftardar and the Fadnis were kept under his superintendence and they were answerable to him for all accounts. It was his duty to inspect every account submitted to him and put his sign and seal on the letters and accounts submitted to him by Fadnis and Chitnis. He was to render military service as and when it was required and look after the administrations of districts as per the orders of the King. The Sachiv:- He was also called Surnis. He was to look after the royal correspondence and make necessary corrections as per the order of the king. The Sachiv was to execute his military duties, help the administration in adjusting newly annexed districts and territories as per the orders of the king. He was to sign and stamp all the official letters as a mark of his approval and acceptance for execution. The Panditrao or the Royal Priest: - He had jurisdiction all over the matters of religion in the kingdom. He had authority to judge the religious offences and punish them as per the orders of the king. He was to put his signature on all papers related to customs, conduct and penance. He was to perform all the religious functions necessary to appease gods on various occasions. The Nyayadhish or the chief Justice: - He had jurisdiction on all the suits in the kingdom, he was to try them righteously, find them what is right and wrong and punish them as per the order of the king. He was to put his signature on the paper of judgement he delivered. The Mantri:- He was also known as wakins. He was to conduct all diplomatic and political affairs of the kingdom very carefully. The departments like invitation and intelligence were under his direct superintendence. He was to help the administration in maintaining the newly acquired districts and perform his military duties as and when required. He was to put his sign and seal on all the official documents as his approval. The Sumant:- He was also called as Dabir and was in-charge of all foreign affairs. It was his duty to receive and entertain all political agents, representatives from various other kingdoms on various occasions. He was also to perform his military duties whenever it was required and he was to put his sign and seal on the letters, documents which came to him , as his approval. Sabhasad says that despite these regular duties of the Pradhans or the ministers , there was a committee of three ministers to look after some of the provinces , divisions or zones of the kingdom like guardian ministers in the modern era . When these ministers were away from their courts or munotes.in

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151 offices, there were their agents looking after the administration of the ministers. Naturally, these agents were also appointed by the king. The kingdom was divided into four divisions as:- 1.The kingdom from Kalyan, Bhivandi, Kolawan upto Satheri, the territories above the Ghats, the Konkan, Lohgad, Junnar, twelve Mawals and Haralya pass were into one division. Moropant Peshwa was to look after this division. 2. The Konkan from Chaul to Kopal, Dabhol, Rajapur, Kudal, Bande and Phand were taken into the second division of the kingdom. Annaji Datto was put in-charge of this division. 3. The territories above the Ghat, from Wai to Kopal in the Tungbhadra river were brought under the third division. Dattaji Pant Waknis was to look after this division, who administered this division from his station at Panhala. Thus, the kingdom was put under three ministers, who were helped by three sarkarkuns. These sarkarkuns had to submit their accounts to the king when they used to meet once in a year. There were some Darakdars appointed to look after the administration of districts and market cities to help the eight Pradhans. Sabhasad says that there were seven to eight subhedars, who were appointed to look after the territories of the Mughals conquered by the Marathas . These subhedars were to submit their report to the Peshwa. 12.6 SECRETARY After the Ashta Pradhan Council, the next segment of the administration was the Secretary or Chitinis. Bal Prabhu Chitnis was the Secretary or Chitins of Chhatrapati Shivaji. Bal Prabhu Chitnis and Nil Prabhu Parasnis had been standing next below to the Pradhans at the time of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s coronation. The Secretary of the king enjoyed much power and had much influence in the administration. Among the powerful and influential secretaries, Balaji Avji was the man of exceptional abilities and caliber. This secretary used to perform various duties of complicated nature very efficiently. He was one of the most trusted persons of the king, and was assigned several delicate tasks of the kingdom to be completed within specific period. Due to his efficiency of any ability he was once offered a seat in the Ashta Pradhan council by the king. About the duties of secretary, Malhar Ramrao Chitnis says that the Secretary was the Patralekhak or a letter writer, who used to write all royal and diplomatic correspondence in such a way that what was not achieved by war and great exploits that should be achieved by means of letters only. Rao Bahadur Sane has published a memorandum regarding the duties of the secretary of the Chhatrapati Shivaji. He says that the secretary used to write all diplomatic letters of the kingdom, in which the sanads, deeds of grants, orders issued to the officers of the districts were included. He was to put seal or take signature of the king if the letter was of special importance otherwise the secretary only should sign and put seal on the correspondence. Citragupta says that Fadnis alone used munotes.in

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152 to issue deeds and royal grants , where as the Chitins used to write letters to the district officers and provincial officers . The Gadnis used to write answers to the letters received from the officers and commanders of forts. The Dabir was the officer to write letters and responses to the foreign courts whereas the Parasnis was to keep correspondence with the Emperor of Delhi and the Muslim rulers. To discharge the departmental duties, each Pradhan of the Council was assisted by eight clerks as official staff, which were as under: - 1. Dewan 2. Mazumdar or Auditor and Accountant 3. Fadnis or Deputy Auditor 4. Sabnis or the Daftardar 5. Karkhanis or Commissary 6. Chitnis or correspondence clerk 7. Jamdar or Treasurer 8. Potnis or cash- keeper 12.7 THE EIGHTEEN KARKHANAS In addition to the eight clerks and other staff, there were several officers put incharge of eighteen kharkhanas working under the Ashta Pradhan Council. These Karkhanas were as under:- 1. Khajina or Cash 2. Jawahir Khana or Jewelstore 3. Ambar Khana or Granary 4. Sharbat Khana or Medicines 5. Toph Khana or Artillery 6. Daftar Khana or Record Department 7. Jamdar Khana or Public treasury containing all sorts of things. 8. Jirat Khana or Corn Depot, according to Molesworth but Armoury according to R.V. Kosh. 9. Mudpak Khana or Kitchen 10. Ashar Khana or Camels and their trappings. 11. Nagar Khana or Band 12. Talim Khana or Gymnasium 13. Pil Khana or Elephant shades 14. Faras Khana or carpets, tents and accessories 15. Abdar Khana or Drink 16. Shikar Khana or Games, aviary, chase and allied materials. 17. Daru Khana or Magazine 18. Shahat Khana or Conservancy Department. 12.8 THE TWELVE MAHALS OR DEPARTMENTS As several clerks and several officers of eighteen Karkhanas, there were twelve mahals under the charge of Ashta Pradhan Coneil as under:- 1. Pote or Treasury 2. Saudagir or Merchandise 3. Palkhi or Palanquins 4. Kothi or warehouse and granaries 5. Imarat or Building 6. Bahili or chariots 7. Paga or stables 8. Seri or Comforts9. Daruni or Zanana 10. Thatti or Cowsheds 11. Taksal or Mints and 12. Sabina or Guards. The historians say that these departments were managed by the officers as per the orderes issed by the king time to time. 12.9 PRANTS AND DISTRICTS IN THE KINGDOM The territories, in the Kingdom were divided into a number of Prants or districts for the convenience of administration, These Prants and districts were as under:- 1. Maval Prant:- In this prant Saswad, Junnar and Khed talukas were there. These prants were guarded by eighteen great hill forts. munotes.in

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153 2. The Prant of Wai:- In this district Wai, Satara , and Karad were taken together. These territories were protected by strong fifteen forts. 3. The Prant Panhala:- In this district Kolhapur was there and was guarded by thirteen hill- forts. 4. Prant South Konkan:- This prant came to be known as Ratnagiri and was protected by fifty eight hill- forts and sea fortresses. 5. Prant Thana:- It was called the north Konkan and it had around twelve forts. 6. Tribak and Bagalan Prants:- . There were two 6th and 7th taken prants together corresponding with the western part of Nasik and they had altogether sixty two hill forts. 8. Prant wangad:- This prant was known as the southern part of Dharwad district, which had twenty-two forts to defend the area. 9. Bednore, Kolhar and Shrirangapatan:- There were 9th, 10th and 11th districts clubbed together, which later came to be known as Mysore and had eighteen forts. 10. Karnatik Prant:- It had eighteen forts to guard this prant. 11. Prant Vellore:- It was came to be known as modern Arcot district and had twenty five forts to protect the district from the enemies. 12. Tanjore Prant:- It had only six forts and had protected the district always. The Sahyadri ranges had several forts to protect the whole area of the kingdom. It is said that there were around two hundred and eighty forts under the jurisdiction of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 12.10. THE DESHMUKH AND THE DESHPANDE They were working as the officers incharge of parghana or districts even before the foundation of the Maratha Raj by Chhatrapati Shivaji. These officials were also called as zamindars, who used to oppress the rayat on various counts. This led Shivaji to remove these Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes from their power as officers in charge of parghanas and districts. He also was well aware about the implications of the removal of these officials. Shivaji, therefore, withdrew their authority as the officers but permitted them to enjoy the customary dues and appointed some Government officers to replace the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs. The Peshwas never changed this administrative setup of parganas and districts during their period and the system proved advantageous to the Government as well as the rayat . Elphinstone says that the relief of rayat or the cultivators from the clutches of the Deshmukhs and Deshpandes generated all healthy and good results. In due course, the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes became friends of rayat and began to help the government in checking the authority of non- hereditary officers on the people. munotes.in

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154 The Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes had several rights and perquisites. Elphinstone says that the Deshmukh’s office was as lucrative as the office of the village Patil. He had the share in the revenue around five per cent and five acres of land with this. He had various claims in kind as a pair of shoes from every shoemaker every year , a portion of ghee from the people who make it. Rajwade says that the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs were remunerated similarly as the Patil and Kulkarni of the village community by the people in districts and parganas under them. Although, the female were skillful and managed the administration and the campaigns well, they were never considered fit for the posts of the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs. These officers helped the king in the collection of revenue, law and order and military warfare. 12.11. THE KAMVISDAR AND THE MAMLATDAR Chhatrapati Shivaji reorganized his administrative setup of Pargana, Sarkar and Subha into Mauja, Tarf and Subha and appointed officers like Havaldar and Subhedar to look after the administration of Tarf and Subha respectively. During the period of Peshwas, this setup was further reorganized into Mahals and Divisons. The officers appointed on the smaller divisions were called Kamvisdars where as the officers appointed on the larger divisions came to be known as Mamlatdars. The mamlatdars were working under the direct contact of the Central Government except the three provinces of Khandesh, Gujrat and Karnatak. The Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars enjoyed their remuneration variously and had several officials at their disposal in their respective administrative divisions . As these officers were the representatives of the Peshwas in their districts, their duties and responsibilities were the most comprehensive in nature and character. These officers were to look after the welfare of the cultivator, devise means to improve agriculture, encourage new industries, enquire into the disputes of civil and criminal nature, and appointment of Panchayat for various decisions. They were responsible for peace and security, control police and adjudicate social and religious questions and problems .Thus, these officers had very wide responsibilities and powers . 12.12. THE DARAKHADARS Elphinstone says that in the Maratha administration of districts various checks on the conduct of the officers were exerted. As Kamvisdars and Mamlatdars were the non-hereditary officers administering the districts, the Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were the hereditary district officers, the latter used as check on the administration of the earlier officers. It is said that the accounts sent by Kamvisdars and Mamlatdars were to be corroborated by the Deshmukh’s and the Deshpande’s corresponding accounts, otherwise the accounts of Kanvisdars and Mamlatdars were not passed by the Government as authentic and accurate. In the same way at the provincial level check was exerted through the hereditary officers known as Darkdars or fee men . These Darkdars munotes.in

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155 worked as check on every department including the departments of navy and army . Neither Kamvisdars nor Mamlatdars were able to dismiss such hereditary officers on any count nor they competed them to do any specific duty unless it was supported by a long tradition and customs in the administration. Even, it is also said that the Kamvisdars or the Mamlatdars were not able to dismiss any officers working under them or vice versa. But the Darkdars were certainly contacting the Government for dismissal or the reinstatement of such officer. This type of check at the smaller level also was brought into execution as Havaldar , a non-hereditary officer at Mahal was checked by two hereditary officers Mazumdar and Fadnis in the revenue matters . But needless to say that these officers never interfered without any valid reason interfered in the internal administration of the village. They worked cohesively with the officers at various levels. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Discuss the problems faced by Shivaji while organizing his civil organizations. 12.13 SUMMARY Chhatrapati Shivaji was equally popular for his military as well as his civil administration. Justice Ranade Says that Shivaji was like Napoleon Bonaparte a great organiser in his times and builder of civil institutions. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s civil administration alone enabled the country to pass without sea the through the dangers, which controlled the Maratha country after his death. Shivaji tried to secure liberty for his people, unite them into one nation and make them powerful for self- defence and self assertion. Shivaji introduced his civil institutions in the territories of Swarajya only. Chhatrapati Shivaji had to face a number of difficulties at the time of building civil administration. Among them disorder and anarchy, importance to military exploits, existence of feudalism, eminence and dominance of local officials were important. The king was the pivotal of the administration of the Marathas. He was the only person able to run the difficult administrative machinery. Every one whether at high or low position with the sanction of the king could not act upon or execute the plan or design. Even, the Panditrao, who was the head for the religious matters, never took action on his own or without consultation or order of the king. The king was the final authority in every matter of the Maratha administration. He was the sovereign power in the kingdom. After the king , the next in succession came the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council , in which there were eight members as the Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan, the Mazumdar or the Amatya, the Wakins or the mantri , the Dabir or the Sumant , the Surnis or the Sachiv , the Panditrao or the royal priest , the Senapati or the commander-in-chief , and the Nyayadhish or the chief Justice. Except the Panditrao and the Nyayadhish all other members of the council were to perform their military duties as and when required by the circ*mstances in addition to their regular and civil responsibilities. Sabhasad says that despite these munotes.in

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156 regular duties , there was a committee of three members to look after the provinces in which they were put in charge . In their absence, there were agents working in their courts and looking after their portfolios, which were appointed by the king. In addition to this, there were other seven to eight subhedars, who were appointed to look after the territories of the Mughals conquered by the Marathas. After the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council, the Secretary was the next important segment in the Maratha administration. He was the Sachiv or the Chitins of the king. Among the most powerful and influential secretaries, Balaji Avaji was the man of exceptional abilities and caliber. Despite this arrangement, the Ashta Pradhan Council was assisted by some clerks like the Dewan, Mazumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamdar and the Potnis. There were eighteen Karkhanas and twelve Mahals or departments in the administration. There were several Prants and districts in the Maratha administration- There is no unanimity on the exact number of the prants and districts. The Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were working as the officers of the prants and districts , which led them to exploit the rayats . The king, therefore , had done away the authority of the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes and appointed new officers to look after the administration of the prant and the district . During the period of the Peshwas, the Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars were appointed to look after the districts and parganas . But the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were used as checks on the authority and the accounts submitted by the Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars to the Government. In the same way, the Darkhdars were the hereditary officers at the prant level and for use as check on the non-hereditary officers appointed by the Maratha Government. In this way, Chhatrapati Shivaji created the wellknown administrative setup in his kingdom . 12.14 QUESTIONS 1. Give an account of the central administration of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 1. Discuss the central and provincial administration of the Marathas. 2. Examine the ideal of kingship of Shivaji with special reference to his Ashta Pradhan Mandal. 3. Assess the role of the Deshmukhas and the Deshpandes in the Maratha administration. 12.15 ADDITIONAL READINGS:- 1. Sen S.N. Administrative System of the Marathas. 2. Ranade Mahadev Govind, Rise of the Maratha Power. 3. Pagadi Setu Madhavrao, Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Kulkarni A.R.Maharastra in the Age of Shivaji.  munotes.in

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158 tempered with common sense in their leaders. A military power needs above all an ideal to defend their country, an ideal to fight for their people and security. The Marathas had carried the reputation of good soldiers as early as the first half of the seventh century A.D.; but it was not before the second half of the seventeenth century that they emerged from the comparative insignificant position to prominence and obtained a place among the great powers of India. The Marathas have been very well known for the military powers from time immemorial. The ancestors of the old Rashtrikas were very popular for their military prowess. They fought various wars under the banner of different dynasties like the Chalukya prince Pulkeshi , they fought and defeated the great army of Harshavardhana. They also fought under Malik Ambar of Ahmednagar against the great army of the Mughal emperor Akbar , who was to retreat ignominiously. The rise of the Marathas under Shivaji opened a new era in the military history of India. He had a clear concept of the military organization of the Marathas. He had definite plans of military reforms, specific views and opinions based upon the past experience. Although, he believed in personal selection of military but had not faith in hereditary genius. He approved of unity of command but never tolerated military interference in the civil administration of the country. He wanted a strong monarchy as the solution to the prevailing disorder, dissentions and anarchy. Naturally Shivaji had, started his operations initially with cautions, circ*mspect and also with small forces attached to the Jagir of his father. Thus, the military administration of the Marathas can be studied with the help of following points :- 13.2 INFANTRY Shivaji was the superhuman military genius, who had perceived the necessity of light infantry and light cavalry in the guerrilla warfare of the mountainous area of Maharashtra. His young Mavalas were the fittest soldiers for the guerrilla campaign in the Maratha territory and were the highly appreciated warriors in the military history of the country. Shivaji selected his infantry personally, not as the basis of formal training on the parade ground but on the assessment of them on the actual battle field . The king never allowed his soldiers to rust their swords and kept them always engaged in various warfare mostly the guerrilla tactics against the formidable Muslim powers in the South and the North . This practice Naturally increased the efficiency of the infantry of Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji had the organizational capability of extreme quality. He organized his infantry in various segments and groups very carefully in order to suit with the geographical requirements of the kingdom as under :- 1. The smallest unit of his infantry had altogether ten members. Out of them nine were soldiers and one was the commanding officer , who was called the Naik . munotes.in

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159 2. The second segment was headed by the officer known as Hawaldar , under whose command there were five units . 3. The next division of the infantry was kept under Jumledar , in which there were around two to three Havaldars . 4. The officer who commanded ten Jumlas was known as the one Hazari officer . 5. Above one hazari officer , there was the Sarnobat of the infantry , who controlled around seven Hazari officers. These officers were paid variously as Jumledar was one hundred hons per year while his assistant sabnis had the salary of forty hons per year . The one Hazari officer was paid five hundred hons every year where as his assistant sabnis was paid variously from one hundred hons to one hundred and twenty-five hons. Chitnis Bakher says that on the eve of special occasions like marriage or any other ceremonies, the Government used to advance financial assistance appropriately. 13.3 CAVALRY As Chhatrapati Shivaji preferred light infantry, he also recruited light cavalry as per the need of the kingdom. Naturally, the people from Maval were predominant in the cavalry and excelled in the guerrilla tactics of the king . The cavalry was divided into two divisions as 1. The Bargirs and 2. Shiledars . The State provided the Bargirs with every weapon, horse and other equipments required for warfare whereas the Shiledars were to equip themselves each of them on their own expenditure. Each Shiledar was to have his own house, weapons, arms and ammunition required for warfare and protection of his own jagir or properties. Sabhasad says that shiledars were kept under the rank and supervision of the Bargirs. Bargirs formed the bonafide part and parcel of the cavalry or paga. In other words, there was a check exercised on each other by the Bargirs and the Shiledars. As the infantry was ranked one after another officer, the cavalry also was organized properly for its administration as:- The first unit of Bargirs was formed of twenty five horses or Bargirs, the unit was kept under the officer known as Havaldar. There were two essential persons appointed to help this first unit as watercarrier and farrier , needed to look after every horse and keep the horse fit for any campaign . The second unit of the cavalry was known as Jumla, in which five havaldars were included. The officer of this jumla was known as Jumledar, who received the salary of five hundred hons per year with a palanquin as a status symbol. His assistant , Mazumdar was paid salary of one hundred to one hundred and twenty five hons for every year. The next unit of the cavalry was one Hazari in which ten jumlas were taken together. The one Hazari officer was paid the salary of one thousand hons per year where his three assistant officers, as Mazumdar, a Maratha munotes.in

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160 karbhari and Prabhu kayastha were paid the salary five hundred hons each year . They all were provided palanquins for transport and were to present together the statement of account for income and expenditure to the Government. The cavalry had one more unit the next , which was known as Panch Hazari, the officer heading this unit was known as the Sarnobat . He was paid the salary of two thousand hons every year with all other perquisites. He had several officers to assist him as a Mazumdar, a karbhari and a jemenis. There was the same arrangement and organization of the shiledars, the brigadiers of shiledars were kept under the supervision of this Sarnobat. Chhatrapati Sivaji often used to announce that he was the king first and the Hindu later. He was supported in this wise resolution by Gomaji Naik Pansambal, who was his trusted and well known officer. Naturally, the Muslims also liked to work under the king and joined his various campaigns against the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the south. There was a body of around seven hundred strong Pathans who worked under Shivaji , that also kept a counter balance and proved useful in several campaigns , Shivaji was the master of all war techniques and all measures of successful expeditions. He knew that behind every successful attempt in the territories of enemy needed the support of intelligence, spies or espionage. He, therefore set up the spies’ department under the leadership of Bahirji Naik Jadhav. This department only helped him the most in organization of all successful expeditions against the rulers of the south and the north. It is said that due to Bahirji Jadhav, the head of the intelligence, the king could save his army from the loss and much damage. Shivaji knew that it was not possible for him to maintain a huge army like the Mughals or the Muhammadan rulers in the south because, the sources of income were not so regular, and the land in his kingdom was not so fertile. But he compensated these flaws by increasing the speed of his operations against the formidable enemies and humbled them at each and every time. In order to increase the agility of his soldiers he ordered to carry befitting arms, ammunition and camp equipage. He ordered them to dress in tight fitting breeches, cotton jackets, turbans and carry the arms like swords both long and short, spears and lances, bows and arrows and match locks. Naturally, the king’s army was so prepared and ready to move within a very short notice. As the army of the king was so quick in mobility, it was equally quick in demobility, due to these characteristics of this army the invading enemy army was ever unable to get any information before their actualization. Chhatrapati Shivaji had well disciplined and well armed brands of soldiers to guard himself. His bodyguards were regimented into units of twenty, thirty, forty, sixty and one hundred soldiers. These guards had dressed in richly embroidered turbans, jackets of broad cloth, gold and silver ear-rings and wristlets. They had silver rings to their weapons like sword-sheaths, guns and spears. Thus, such brands of guards marched with the palanquin of the great king Shivaji and succeeded in every attempt, which the king planned and executed. munotes.in

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161 As a matter of fact, there were forces of some feudal Maratha watandars before and after the period of Shivaji. These watandars were often ready to help the king as the Mavali Deshmukhs used to help him. Among such feudal Maratha watandars Mal Patil and Baji Patil of Birvadi were often ready to serve the king the most. These watandars desired six ruka and half anna per soldier per day for their substitution and were ready to serve the king as long as the circ*mstances needed their help. But the king was not in favour of taking the help of such watandars at any time unlike the Peshwas, who came to power later. Chhatrapati Shivaji was very punctual in the payment of his soldiers, who were paid either in cash or kind. Some time they were assigned to districts for their payment with necessary orders or varat. He was deadly against to the payment of soldiers by way of granting them jagir. Shivaji never allowed to fall the salary of his soldiers into arrears. If any cultivator worked as a soldier, his changed rent was deducted from his salary. It is said that the salaries paid to the soldiers were not high and they were all manageable as from Rs. 3 to Rs. 9 for infantry and from Rs.6 to Rs.20 for cavalry soldiers depending on their ranks, experience and positions. In addition to this, the soldiers and their officers were rewarded generously and magnanimously for their distinguished services rendered during their career. The soldiers sustained wounds while doing duty were monetarily compensated as per their injuries. The king personally paid attention towards the widows and children of the soldiers, who laid their lives for the kingdom were liberally and adequately granted pension as well as the major sons or relatives of such soldiers were opted into the service of the kingdom. If any slain soldier survived with no heir or son, his wife was granted the half pension for survival. Shivaji ordered to organize his soldiers after the destruction and total defeat of the army of Afzal Khan and rewarded them with cash and kind befittingly. He gave away the rewards in precious ornaments like bracelets, necklaces, crest, medallions, earrings, pearls, horses, elephants and houses to the soldiers for their meritorious services. 13.4 MILITARY REGULATIONS There are several historians, who have given different pictures and accounts of military camps of the Maratha sardars on various occasions. Elphinstone says the Maratha camp means the long lines of white tents installed tidily whereas Jone’s history says that the Maratha camp included all participants in the war, with their animals, families, and other people like entertainers, Banyas, fakeers and buffoons. Broughton says that the Sindias camp projected ugly picture of military discipline. Because it accompanied public women and the wine was sold publicly, which was against the military rules. But this was not the situation of Shivaji’s camp. He never allowed anyone to carry any female slaves or dancing girls and using wine. He punished the offender, whosoever breached his order and the camp rules with death. Chhatrapati Shivaji was the lover of military discipline and created some several sets of military rules, abided by every soldier in the strictest manner. munotes.in

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162 Sabhasad and Sen have taken together some military rules and regulations, which Shivaji executed with much care and caution in his military. These rules can be summarized as under :- 1. Shivaji had ordered them to return to their barracks in the rainy season for four months. 2. The provisions needed for them like grains, medicines, fodder and houses for men should be kept ready. In the same way there should be stables thatched with grass for horses and elephants kept ready. 3. The military should move out of their barracks the moment the Dassera was over. 4. Every one in the military should prepare inventory while leaving their barracks and going on the expedition. 5. The military should subsist themselves on the spoils they secure in the territories of their enemy by way of levy and contribution of these rulers towards the Marathas. 6. The military should not carry with them any woman, female slaves, or dancing girls on the expedition. The soldier who would breach the order or the rule invited the capital punishment. 7. The soldiers should abide by some rules and regulations in the enemy territories as they should not capture women, children, Brahmins and cows . They should capture males , bullocks and buffaloes to be used for transportation. 8. No one should commit adultery on any account , if the rule was breached , the offender was beheaded summarily . 9. The military should be on expedition for eight months in the enemy territory. 10. While returning back home on the border itself the military should take stock of all soldiers participated in the expedition and reach their barracks in the month of vaishakh. 11. The head of the unit should check items with the soldier with the earlier inventory, if anything found additional was to be valued and the same value was to be deducted from the salary of the soldier . 12. If anything valuable found, should be directly sent to the king or the royal treasury . 13 If anything, as one of the soldiers secretly concealed and came to the light, the unit officer should enquire and punish such guilty soldier. 14. As soon as the military reached their barracks, the officers or sardars should prepare the whole account of their expedition, and meet the king with all valuables like gold , silver, jewels, clothes and commodities of value and present munotes.in

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163 them to the king . In the same meeting, the officers or sardars should submit their account and explain it wherever required. 11. If any expenditure was to be made and required additional financial assistance, that was to be brought to the notice of the king and if appealed to him , to hand over to the concerned sardar. 16. The military officers should return to their barracks after meeting the king and assess the performance of their soldiers in the campaign and reward them suitably . On the other hand, if any soldier or officer had not performed well deliberately, a quick inquiry was to be made and if found guilty he was to be dismissed from the services. 17. When the military reached back to their barracks , was to wait there for months and on the Dassera day accompany the king to the expedition of the fresh year as per the plan and order of the king. These were the military regulations of the Marathas, which were brought into execution by the king strictly, even then there were some exceptional incidents of violation of these rules regulations, as in 1671, a Maratha soldier had attacked the sabnis of his regiment. In 1672 some of the soldiers had troubled to some pilgrims of the Chaphal Fair. In1676, a camp of the Maratha military at Chiplun had troubled the people of neighboring villages for the want of provisions. Although, Shivaji sorted out such incidents and punished them, such incidents were not totally removed because the military had the example of Bijapur army, which was popular for indiscipline. Chhatrapati had taken strong action against such incidents in the later period to enforce strict discipline in the forces . Despite these defects, the Maratha soldiers were good people, they were short in stature and of light built, not stout and tall as the soldiers of the Moghals . But their courage, hard work, wonderful energy, presence of mind and agility were more than the soldiers of the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the Deccan. The Maratha soldiers due to these characteristics could surpass the Mughal and the Muhammadan soldiers in the open warfare on equal terms. Dr. Fryer says that the soldiers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were the fittest for any martial exploit, they were accustomed to fare hard, journey fast, and enjoy very little pleasure. Even their women did not lag behind them. He further says that although, the soldiers of Shivaji were very good for surprising attack and ransacking, they did not care much for a pitched battle and were of stirring spirit. 13.5 NAVAL ADMINISTRATION Chhatrapati Shivaji felt the need of organization of a strong naval power after his Konkan conquest to check the power of the Siddhis of Janjira , who often used to raid the coast of Marathas and pester them unnecessarily. Shivaji’s navy had several boats and ferries of various descriptions but they predominated mainly by Gallivats and Ghurabs . Sabhasad gives a detailed account of Shivaji’s naval vessels. It says that there were around four hundred Ghurabs, Tarandes , Tarus , Gallivates , munotes.in

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164 Shibals and Pagas , which were organized into two squadrons of two hundred vessels each . Each squadron was placed under the supreme command of two officers as 1. Admirals Dariya Sarang , a Muhammadan officer and 2. Mai Naik, a Bhandari. It is said that Daria Sarang was not only the Muhammadan officer in the naval administration of Shivaji, there were many other Muhammadan officers like Admiral Daulat Khan , who joined Shivaji’s fleet little later. Chhatrapati Shivaji had manned his navy mostly by Kolis and the men from seafaring tribes of the Malbar coast. There is no detail information available about their uniform but the Maratha sailors used to wear headgear which was very much similar to that of koli hat. It is said that Shivaji tried to check the European powers as the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English in the Indian waters and save the trade of Indian merchants in those waters . Robert Orme says that in 1675 the strength of Shivaji’s fleet reached to fifty seven vessels, out of them fifteen were grabs, and the rest of vessels were gallivats, which were crowded with men for all the times . Another foreign traveler Frayer says that when he was on the way to Kharepatan, which was south to Dande Rajapure , he saw a strong castle of Shivaji and his navy, which consisted of thirty small ships and vessels, the Admiral heading the naval fleet had a white flag flattering aloft. Prof. Jadunath Sarkar says that Shivaji had a large mercantile navy but developed certain weaknesses due to the lack of naval tradition and a good artillery. Robert Orme says that the Maratha navy predominantly based on two vessels namely the gallivats and the gurabs, which were suited to the Malabar coast. The Maratha grabs had two to three masts, the vessels having three masts had the capacity of three hundred tons burthen and the rest had only the capacity of hundred- and fifty-tons burthen. This vessel was some how similar to that of a Mediterranean galley and covered with a strong deck level with the main dock of the vessel. This structure of the vessel increased its speed when sailing. The deck of the prow was not enclosed with sides as the other vessels , it remains bare that the water which dashed upon it passed off without interruption. On the main deck under the fore-castle were mounted two pieces of cannon of nine or twelve pounders, which pointed forwards through the port holes cut in the bulk head and five over the prow. The cannon of the broadside was from six to nine pounders. The vessels gallivates were large row boats, built like gurabs but smaller in dimension and had the capacity of not more than seventy tons . They were of two masts boats of which the mizen was very slight , the main mast bore only one sail, which was triangular and very large . These vessels could bear six or eight pieces of cannon from two to four pounders. Although, the European vessels were bigger and larger, the naval soldiers of Shivaji attacked on the Portuguese successfully for more than one occasion . Sabhasad says that among other vessels, tarande was a sailing vessel of large dimension. The next vessel was shibad , which was a flat bottomed two-masted craft having no deck . The third vessel was Pagar , was only a well smoothed Canoe. It is said that these vessels belonged to the mercantile navy and plied munotes.in

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165 between the ports of Shivaji and the various coast towns of Arabia . That means Chhatrapati Shivaji had realized that there was a need of strong mercantile navy for strong naval power of the Marathas . Thus, the Navy of Shivaji performed several functions as policed against the siddi’s pirate fleets, took possession of foreign vessels wrecked on the Maratha coast, collected duties from the trading ships and regulated exports and import duties as per the orders of the king. The naval power started by Shivaji went on increasing in the later period under the Angrias and the Peshwas considerably. Th mercantile spirit of the Maratha traders found a greater scope with the expansion of the Maratha empire under the Peshwas and they began to ply to various places like all towns of Arabian coast and countries like China and others from the south east Asia. 13. 6 FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS Although, the military of Chhatrapati Shivaji was numerically lesser than the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the south, he tried to compensate that by increasing quality of his military and made it much more efficient than his counterparts in the north and the south. In order to achieve his objectives, he introduced strict discipline, appealed to the military as well as patriotic instinct of his soldiers and succeeded in his design to the maximum extent. The Mavalis were his earliest adherents who were hardy hill men came to prominence under his leadership. He depended on these hill men and their hills because these hills constituted the best defence and the hill men accompanied him in his all bold and perilous raids. Sivaji trained his hill men Mavalis into an excellent infantry and converted all bare rocks and mountains into impregnable forts, which helped him to restrict the entry of any external power to his country. He had altogether two hundred and forty forts whereas Ranade says “He possessed major and minor two hundred and eighty forts . There was not a single taluka or pargana which was not protected at least by a fort or stronghold. His forts extended over the vast range of mountains, which skirted the western shore of India. Shivaji had regularly fortified his forts , which commanded every pass”. Chitnis says that forts were the very life of the Maratha kingdom while Lokhitwadi says that Shivaji was popular for mainly building his forts. His all hill forts were impregnable naturally, which never needed a strong garrison. In general, he had kept around five hundred soldiers to defend a fort but never put the whole responsibility of defending the fort in the hands of only one officer. Sabhasad says that there were three officers like Hawaldar, Sabnis and Sarnobat, who collectively exercised the authority of the fort . They were answerable for the administration of the fort they possessed. There were several sections in the fort and each was allotted to one officer like Karkhanis, who was looking after the store of grains and writing of all accounts of income and expenditure. Shivaji had made adequate arrangement for the defense of his forts. Where the forts were of extensive circuit, he appointed seven to eight Tat Sarnobats and the charge of ramparts was assigned to them. While appointing the officers as well as recruiting soldiers, the king took munotes.in

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166 much care as , he assessed their bravery, background, ability and intelligence. He made a team of ten persons, which was headed by a Naik. Thus, all persons put in the defense of the fort were held responsible. Even then, there was a committee of three chief officers as Hawaldar, Sabnis and Karkhanis. Hawaldar was put as the chief of the committee. He was to keep the keys of the fort with him . He himself was to make sure that every gate was bolted properly and the main gate was locked by him personally. He was not to open any gate including the principal gate during the night at any cost. Havaldar was not to delegate this duty to anybody at any cost. Chhatrapati Shivaji had tested the reliability, efficiency and firmness of officers of the fort personally on several occasions. The second officer was Sabnis, who was put in charge of the accounts in general and the muster roll in particular. The third officer was Karkhanis, who was mainly responsible for the commissariat work. It is said that these officers worked cohesively and kept check on each other. 13.7 RESERVE FUND FOR FORTS Chhatrapati Shivaji used to store sufficient provisions in the fort to be consumed during the period of any emergency or siege by any formidable armies like the Mughals. But this policy could not work for a long time due to certain difficulties. The king, therefore decided to start a Reserve Fund to meet the expenditure of extraordinary needs of the forts surrounded by armies of enemy. A document of the year 1671-72 mentions that Chhatrapati Shivaji began to raise the reserve fund from each Mahal and watan in his kingdom to be used specially when there was no money available from any other sources against the siege of forts by the Mughals. The reserve fund was fixed to one lakh twenty five thousand hons and that was raised from the following Mahals, watans and personages:- 1. Kudal, Kolen and Rajapur twenty thousand hons from each 2. Dabhol fifty thousand hons 3. Poona thirteen thousand hons 4.Nagoji Govind ten thousand hons 5.Jawali, Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Indapur and Krishnaji Bhaskar five thousand hons from each 6. Supa two thousand hons. This amount was set aside as reserve fund and was not spent on any other Government work at any cost but on the forts, which were beleaguered by the enemy. 13.8 FUND FOR REPAIRING FORTS:- Chhatrapati Shivaji was the most farsighted king, his provisions for the reserve fund and repairing forts has been testimony of the same. As the king had kept around one lakh twenty five thousand hons for reserve fund ,in the same way he set aside one lakh seventy five thousand hons for repairing his principal forts . The forts and the amount he apportioned each was as under :- 1. Sinhgad, Sindhudurga , Vijaydurg, Pratapgad,Purandhar and Rajgad had been assigned ten thousand hons each. munotes.in

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167 2. Prachandgad, Prasiddhagad, Vishalgad, Mahipalgad, Sudhagad, Lohgad, Sabalgad and Shrivardhangad had been allotted five thousand hons each. 3. Korigad and Sarasgad were given two thousand hons each . 4. Manohargad was sanctioned one thousand hons and seven thousand hons were kept for miscellaneous work. Thus, the king tried to keep the forts in tact at any cost. 13.9 ARTILLERY It was very effective and offensive weapon of long-range shooting and used on large scale in wars by rulers who came to India like Babar. He ascribed his decisive victories over his Rajput and Pathan opponents to artillery only. Due to advanced knowledge and various strategies of artillery, the Portuguese became a formidable power in south India. Therefore, it became imperative necessity for Marathas to master the art and technique of this weapon to compete and overcome their political opponents in the country. Chhatrapati Shivaji had a regular department of artillery which was popularly known as Tophkhana or Darukhana. But the king was to depend totally on European companies for supply of guns and cannons used in artillery. A document of 1671 says that Shivaji had permitted the French and the English to establish their factories at Rajapur in order to seek the guns and powder needed for his artillery. He had also purchased around two thousand mounds of lead and eighty-eight iron guns from the Portuguese at Rajapur in 1673. But Shivaji could not get any such arms and ammunitions from the English at Surat. In the same way, neither Sambhaji nor Kanhoji Angre could get any arms and ammunitions from the English. During the period of Peshwas some efforts were made to establish their own foundries for manufacturing arms and ammunition used in artillery. Peshwa Bajirao I had established his foundry in 1739, which was visited by Captain William Gordon, the English envoy at Poona. Madhavrao I had established one more factory at Ambegaon to manufacture cannon balls in 1765-66. In 1770 another factory at Poona was brought up by the Peshwas for the war ammunition. A document of 1754-55 mentions that Mahadevrao Shivdeo was the head of the artillery of the Peshwas. There were other eight officers used to help him in the department. Another document of 1777 mentions that Narona a Portuguese officer commanded the artillery of Peshwas. The trained battalion of Peshwas under the command of Boyd had employed eight Portuguese gunners on the monthly salary of Rs. sixty each and two Jamadars were paid Rs. thirty each a month. There were two Hawaldars who were paid Rs. eighteen each, whereas forty-two Golandazes or gunners were paid Rs. twelve as monthly salary and twenty-four Khalasis whose salary was Rs ten each month. Orme Says that Shivaji had supplied artillery to defend his forts. Sabhasad says that when Diler Khan had surrounded the fort of Purandhar, Murar munotes.in

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168 Baji Prabhu had a dashing sally on the siege of this Mughal officer. Scott- Waring says that Shivaji had no good artillery and was never used in wars. Dr. Fryer says that almost all forts were on the top of the inaccessible mountains and became naturally defensible needed no other artillery but stones only. which were tumbled down upon their enemies by the soldiers of Shivaji. These stones caused certain destructions not less than bullets where they were alighted. Needless to say that the Maratha soldiers had gathered huge heaps of stones at certain stations and they rolled them down upon their enemies as and when they needed their strategy to defeat the assailers. After this strategy, the Maratha soldier sallied upon the besiegers with their swords in hand and finished the enemy totally. Chhatrapati Shivaji paid his Hawaldar at the fort one hundred twenty five Hons a year. In 1680, Nagoji Bosale was appointed as Mudrahari or chief of Utlur fort on the salary of one hundred sixty Hons per year whereas Krishnaji Suryavanshi was appointed Sarnobat in the same fort on the salary of hundred Hons every year. In addition to these officers some other persons were appointed to help them in various capacities as Muzumdar who was paid thirty six Hons per year , Tat sarnobat was paid twelve Hons a year and there were seven Bargirs, whose yearly pay was nine hons . Despite their regular payment, the king procured them some additional facilities as per rank and importance as palanquin, torchbearers, personal attendants and some other persons also were there . Thus, the king had taken care of each person and their requirements in all areas. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Describe briefly the Infantry of the Marathas. 13.10 SUMMARY The Maratha Empire was primarily a military organization and its civil institutions were closely connected with its military system. The military efficiency demands discipline in the men and the imagination tempered with common sense in their leaders. The ideal of military should be to defend their country and their people from enemies. The Marathas had earned the reputation as soldiers from the seventh century itself but they earned the reputation as the political power during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji only in the second half of the seventeenth century. This was the new era in the history of the country. Chhatrapati Shivaji had a clear concept of the Military organisation of the Marathas. He wanted a strong monarchy as the solution to prevailing disorder and anarchy. Naturally, Shivaji began his operation with caution initially, which was with the small forces attached to the Jagir of his father. He preferred light Infantry suiting to the guerrilla warfare of the mountainous area of Maharashtra. His young Mavalas were the fittest soldiers for guerrilla campaigns in the Maratha territory and were the highly appreciated warriors in the munotes.in

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169 military history of the country. He organized the Infantry into various groups which were kept under the officers of Naik, Hawaldar, Jumledar, Hazari and the Sarnobat. These officers were paid handsome salary regularly. In the same way cavalry was organized into Bargirs and the Shiledars. State provided everything to the Bargirs from the state expenditure whereas shiledars were to spend for horses, weapon and all other things from their own. The cavalry was organized into various sections as the Infantry and had the officers of the same rank but the Panch Hazari was an additional officer. They were also paid handsome salary either in cash or kind. Chhatrapati Shivaji had prepared several rules and regulations for the advantage of people in his kingdom.These rules and regulations suggest the idea and concern of Shivaji towards his people. Shivaji felt the need of a strong naval power to check the growing power of the Siddis of Jangira, who had threatened the security of the Maraha territories in Konkan. Sabhasad gives detail account of Shivaji’s navy and various vessels as Gallivates , Gurabs, Tarandes, Tarus and Pagas, which were organized into two groups of two hundred vessels in each. Shivaji’s navy was commanded by Admiral Dariya Sarang. The most important achievement of the Maratha king, Chhatrapati Shivaji was the construction of forts and strongholds. Shivaji constructed and repaired around two hundred and forty forts whereas Ranade says that he had around two hundred eighty forts. These forts were managed by a group of several officers as per the strict orders and supervision of the king. Shivaji had set aside one lakh twenty five thousand Hons for meeting the basic needs of people in the forts during the period of emergency. In the same way he also set aside one lakh seventy five thousand Hons for repair of several forts. Shivaji had very effective and regular department of Artillery, which was known as Tophkhana. 13.11 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Infantry and cavalry of the Marathas. 2. Give an account of the guerrilla warfare of the Marathas. 3. Write a detailed note of forts and strongholds of the Marathas. 4. Assess the role of Artillery in the military organization of the Marathas . 13.12 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Sen S. N. , The Military system of the Marathas . 2. Sen S. N. , Adminisrative system of the Marathas . 3. Pagadi Setu Madhavrao , Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Ranade M. G. , Rise of the Maratha Power.  munotes.in

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171 14.1. INTR ODUCT ION
As a matter fact the judicial institutions are in the process of evolution in
the world. The evolutionary process has been influenced by the
changing scenario, which deferred from country to country. In England,
much emphasis has been given on the procedure, for which the country
passed various acts and made it systematic, scientific and tried to bring
clarity in the existing laws. The country had a body of professional judges,
who were experts in the laws of land and they tried to give specific
shape even to unwritten customary laws of the land. The English suitor
knows well the procedure of the judiciary, he believed in it and also
knows about the fair decision of the judiciary. On the other hand, the
Maratha judicial system and administra tion had excelled in
simplicity. It had no codified laws, there was no fixed procedure and no
financial burden of delayed suits except anxieties and worries. The
Maratha judiciary practised on the basis of customs, which varied from
district to district. There was a trial by ordeal, which again was
inconvenient, because it was not possible easily to all people concerned,
the result was that the honest poor could not claim his rights against the
dishonest rich. Alt hough, Elp hinstone criticised the Maratha judiciary, it
worked for several centuries with name and fame.
The Maratha administration of justice was simple and it was suited to the
temper and situations prevailed during that time. The law was not
codified, its procedure was not certain and it was mostly in formal.
There are several salient features of the judicial administration of the
Marathas as
1. It depended upon the old Sanskrit treatises like Mitakshara school of
thought and Manus codes for legal theories
2. It also banked upon the old customs which prescr ibed the trial by
ordeal. The Maratha judges allowed the offender to undergo the
ordeal of fire and water. They also believed in the divine intervention
and taking oath in sacred temple.
3. The Marathas acted as patriarchs of the old laws. They were little softer
on the enforcement of the civil suits and emphasised on the amicable
settlement of these disputes.
4. They gave almost all facilities or chances to the suitor or
complainants to prove his case
5. They also showed some considerations to the defeated party or defend
to ensure the good relations between the parties in future.
Chhatrapati Prat ap Sinha, the ruler of Satara between 1808 and 1839 had
prepared a list which is known popularly ‘YADI’ of all procedural
customs prevailed during the period of Marathas. T he ruler has
emphasised on the amicable settlement, he further says that in case the
parties failed to settle their dispute amicably, they should move to the
arbitra tor and get satisfactory settlement for both the parties. In this munotes.in

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173 gratification and private presents to members of the Panchayat. It was
noteworthy that the party never abided by the judgement which was
delivered in his absence. Such judgement was quashed by the appeal
of the absent party to the Government. It also happened that the relatives
of the absent party were arrested and put under rigorous conditions in
order to mound the pressure on the absent member to be present in
the court for the hearing. The defeated party was to sign an agreement in
which he was to renounce his all claims to the property in dispute in
favour of his opponent. The winner of the dispute was to pay the amount
around twenty five percent of the total value of the disputed property or
watan to the Government.
14.4. MEMBES OF PANCHAYAT
Although there was no requisite qualification of a member
appointed on the Panchayat , the people from the same village or the caste
men were preferred for the job. Generally, the people like Des hmukh,
Deshpande and relatives of the disputing parties were appointed to settle
the boundary disputes. Elphinstone confirms this view and adds one more
member who used to be the village watchman , considering that he knew
almost all boundaries of the individual land. There was a general practice
that when the watan was in dispute, the Zamindars of neighboring
Pargana and Patils of adjoining village were appointed on the Panchayat
to adjudicate the matter. Because it was expected that these people would
know all procedural matters and were aware of the tradition, custom and
unwritten laws relating to the landed property and watans in the kin gdom.
D. B. Parasnis says that a Majalasi or a special council was constituted to
hear and adjudicate the appeals of watan and property, in which some
Brahmins were included. It is also observed that the appointment of
such Majalasi, Panchayat and their members were to be approved and
authorised by the government in some important cases and then permitted
to perform t heir judicial duties. The Peshwas overlooked such
irregularities in several cases after going through the motive behind
the appointment of these councils and their members.
14.5 APPEALS
During this period, if any party dissatisfied with the judgement of the
Panchayat was able to appeal to the appellant court . The appeal was
made generally on the pretext of corruption of the Panchayat members.
But the responsibility of proving or substantiation of his charges used to
lie on the person appealing, otherwise, he was to pay fine, which was
known popu larly as Gunhagiri. The amount of fine was imposed after
considering the means and financial capabilities of the appellate. The
Panchayati members were being t he co-villagers of the appe llate, the
appeals were generally rare. The another reason of this was that the
appellate was to suffer teasing in day to day. Naturally, peop le very rarely
were going for appeals. The Government used to appoint a new Panchayat
for appeals or assigned the work to a Government officer like Mamlatdar.
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175 cases, the defeated party, although had signed the agreement was not
satisfied with the decision by the caste men. Then the party took the
Panchayat to the sacred river, the defendant and the plaintiff were made to
stand in the sacred water, the person who was to do ordeal by water he
was asked to deliver his judgment in presence of all those people in the
sacred river water. He was to take bath in the sacred water and give his
decision there its elf. The judicial system presumed that an ordinary would
never speak wrong at such auspicious time and in presence of all people
as well as the verdict would go no wrong; this was the basic principle
behind such ordeal.
Although, there were several ordeals performed in the process of
deliverance of judgment, very few were practiced for the convenience of
the administra tion, which depended on the nature of the dispute. For
example in a Patilki watan dispute between Devji and Shankararji
Dhangat in the district of Pali, the ordeal of Agnidivya was performed. In
this ordeal the contending party was asked to take out a metal piece
from the boiling oil pot. The moment the party took out the metal, his
hand was bandaged and presented him before the Distr ict officer or
Majalisi or the Council. If the hand of the party did not get any injury or
burn, the party was declared s uccessful. The ordeal was called complete
and the party was restored with for which it was fighting. Regarding the
boundary dispute between two villages, one of the Patils was to fix the
right boundary with cow's hide on his head. It was presumed that if the
person doing ordeal lied, some illness or other mishap was expected
to befall him or his family, if he did not sustain any injury or left
undisturbed, it was believed that his assertion was true and corroborated
by the God. Thus, the Maratha judicial administration sanctioned all these
ordeals.
Despite these ordeals some several disputes were taken to the court of
celebrated judges or Nyayadhish like Ram Shastri Pra bhune, who were
very popu lar for uprightness in the history of Maratha judiciary. These
Nyayadhish interviewed or examined the people or disputing parties in
their own houses in private, even they also consulted the friends of the
disputants with firmness in order to get complete and correct idea of the
dispute to give justice to the parties in dispute. The Maratha judges like
Ram Shastri were not the people to deviate from the path of justice for
any man in whatever position or for any advantage unde r the Sun. The
procedure of the Maratha judiciary was mostly informal while the
European emphasized on the form, procedure, hard and fast rules. The
absence of these formalities led the Europeans to pass several re marks on
the Maratha judicial system. Elphinstone says that in general r ich,
influential and the men of ranks received some favour across the
countries and the ages, who defined the law with more or less impun ity.
But this was not the case in Maratha judiciary, in which high rank officials
were punished for their misconduct and their watans were liquidated for
debts. It is said that observation and remarks of Elphinstone were
befitting to the European countries when feudalism was practiced. munotes.in

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177 accepted complaints and punished guilty peop le severely. Broughton is
one of the admirers of the Maratha judicial administration who says
that the Maratha rulers were enough accessible to the people even
during the time of emergency or expedition. Dr. Hope one more European
writer expressed his views in favour of the Maratha ju dicial
administra tion. He says that there was much to admire about the
Maratha judiciary and one of them was the simplicity of the system and
there was very little to detest in that administratio n.
14. 10. JUDICIAL OFFICERS
Although, Elphinstone was very critical abou t the Maratha judicial
system, he himself admitted that the Maratha country was peculiarly
free from crimes and gang robberies were never taking place. This is the
credit goes to the system, the ruler and the people involved in it. There
were several ju dicial officers involved in it as 1. The Patil at village 2. The
Kamvisdar or Mamlatdar at the district level. 3. The Sarsubhedar at the
province 4. The Peshwa or the chief justice at Poona 5. The highest
judicial authority was the king himself, who was generally represented by
the chief Nyayadhish. In the preceding period of the Marathas, the Hazir
Majalasis worked as the final court trial which consisted of lawyers, civil
and military officers of the state. Shukranitisara says that there were
Sabha Naiks and Mahap rashnikas, who were also involved in the judicial
administration of that period.
14. 11. ROLE OF PANCHAYAT IN CRIMIN AL CASES
In the Maratha judicial administration, the authorities or judges like the
Patil, the Panchayat, the Kamvisdar, the Sarsubhedar, the Peshwas and the
king were adjudicating the civil as well as the criminal disputes as per the
laws of the land. It is said that the Panchayat had not that much
jurisdiction in the criminal cases as it had in the civil cases. But it was
called some time to make inquiries and pass judgement in those criminal
cases without hesitation. This is clear from the incidence of 1760 in
which Yashwantrao Ks hirsagar , sixty one of Kameri and two others were
killed in a land revenue dispute, after a complaint about the incident by
the victim's son. The Patil, Kulkarni and some people of the village were
summoned to the Huzur, after the enquiry, the Panchayat fixed
appropriate compensation, which was paid to the victim's son. But such
serious crimes were taking place very rarely.
14. 12. FINE AND PUNISHMENTS
The Marathas had realized that whatever punishment was inflicted should
be corrective and that should not push the offender into extreme
frustration and convert him as a sworn enem y of people and the
government. The second important provision the Marathas had and that
was that while fixing the punishment the capability of the offender was
taken into consideration and he was allowed to pay the sum of his
punishment into several installments. There was no capital punishment
during the period of Chhatrapati Shahu. The government punished the munotes.in

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179 But during the period of Marathas as Chanakya says the slave was able to
enjoy whatever he used to earn and entitled to inherit the property of his
father. In short, the sla very unde r the Marathas was different than the
slavery in Europe and America. The slaves were treated well, they were
set free on several occasions, festivals and due to their old age. They were
released on the suitable substitute for their owner and allowed to marry
with the person of their choice. The marriage of slave girl means it was as
good as her manumission.
4. Biga my and Fo rcible Marriage: -During the Maratha period, there
were several offences related to marriage of the Hindu male and female.
Many a times, male was able to get rid of any such offences but female
was punished with severe punishment. Among such offences two
offences were generally taking place as 1. Bigamy and 2. Forcib le
marriage. In case if for bigamy, the parents or guardians were responsible
then they were to be blamed. Because during this period, child marriages
were practiced and the young girls used to be victims of this offence. In
the year 1752-53 a person was punished with Rs. eighty because he had
married a girl, who was already married with somebody else and he was
present when the second marriage of his wife was taking place. Thus, the
second husband became guilty automatically because, he did not enquire
about the girl's earlier marriage. In another case of 1770-71, a
Brahmin family was imprisoned on the charge of marrying t heir girl
twice, when her husband by the first marriage was alive. In the same
way, in case of forced marriage the punishment was manyfold as 1.
The confiscation of property, 2. Excommunication of the parties 3.
Imposing fine on the parties. It is said that a family was punished with
fine when it was proved that it had married a forty-five-year-old male
with a three-year-old girl forcibly, when the parents of the girl were not in
sense. Thus, the judiciary under the Marathas worked meticulously and
adjudicated such cases and disputes.
5. Mutilation: - Elphinstone says that there were no crimes during
the period of Marathas. The most important reason for this was that the
Maratha rulers were not cruel, they used to be very considerate for a
deserving offender, they punished them with a small fine and set them
off. But this situation was not continued for a long time. the Marathas
were constrained to inflict some sort of severe and exemplary sentences to
overawe the would-be offenders. Alt hough, there was no capital
punishment during the period of Chhatrapati Shahu and the Peshwa Balaji
Bajirao, the Peshwas like Madha v Rao and Madhav Rao II were
constrained to inflict very serious punishment to serious offences like
treason , murder, dacoity, robbery and causing any serious hurt.
Madhavrao Peshwa convicted the serious offenders to death on one
occasion and on the other he inflicted the offenders to be mutilated.
It is said that there were the following punishments and sentences for the
crime of theft as 1. Capital punishment 2. Right hand and left leg were to
be cut off 3. Right hand only was to be cut off 4. Right hand, one ear was
to be cut off 5. Right hand and right leg were to be cut off 6. One ear was
to be cut off. These were sentences inflicted on criminals depending on munotes.in

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181 there was no much financial burden of the civil suits of the parties. The
Patil, the Kamvisdar or Mam latdar, the Sarsubhedar, the Peshwa and the
king were the officers one after another in succession , who delivered
judgements during this period. Although, the Panchayat. had no that much
jurisdiction in criminal cases as it had in the civil cases, but sometime it
was asked to conduct an enquiry and pass a judgement in the case
concerned. Alt hough, there was no capital punishment during the period
of Chhatrapati Shahu, the Later Peshwa had long lists of fine and
punishments inflicted on the accused. These fines and punishments were
based on the nature of crimes and their severity. The crimes like
witchcraft, adultery, bigamy, forcible marriage was treated very seriously.
During the period of Peshwa Mahadhavrao, very serious punishments
were in flicted to offenders of treason, murder , dacoit, robbery and
causing serious hurt. It is said that mutilation also was in practice as a
punishment for a serious offence.
14.14. QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate the role of Panchayat in the judicial administra tion of the
Marathas.
2. Assess the importance of evidence in the dispute during the
period of Marathas.
3. Give an account of trial by ordeal in the judicial administration of
Marathas.
4. Write an essay on the fine and punishments in the judicial
administration of Marathas.

14.15 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Sen S.N. Administrati ve System of the Marathas.
2. Sen S.N. The Military System of the Marathas.
3. Dr. Gune, the judicial System of the Marathas.
4. Setu Madhavrao Payadi, Chhatrapati Shivaji.
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184 he was to pay and he paid it easily and without any oppression. Chhatrapati Shivaji studied the revenue system of Malik Ambar, which he felt that it would suit his kingdom and he adopted it with some minor modifications. Malik Ambar was a great foreigner, who worked with the ruler of Ahmednagar in the same circ*mstances as Chhatrapati Shivaji. He tried to defend the tottering Nizamshahi kingdom against the onslaught of Aurangzeb by introducing several measures to reorganize the exhausted resources of the revenue system of its kingdom of Ahmednagar. He divided the land into four classes on the basis of its fertility, ascertained its production and fixed the revenue once for all. He removed the intermediary agency of revenue collection and assigned the responsibility of revenue collection to the hereditary Patil and Deshpande and he held them responsible for fully realization of revenue. Thus, this system proved useful for collection of maximum land revenue and it was adopted with some minor modification by the Marathas. 1 Land Survey of Anno Datto : - Although , Shivaji adopted the revenue system of Malik Ambar , he did not adopt it in toto and removed all defects prevailed in it. As Malik Ambar could not conduct the land survey with care and caution that Chhatrapati realized. Shivaji found that there were several units of measurement, which created variations in the measurement as traditional rope and tenab or measuring chain. These units changed in length in various seasons and gave no accurate measurement. Shivaji, therefore, searched a standard unit, which was a kathi or measuring rod. This was of five cubits and five fists (muthis) in length. Such twenty kathis made one bigha and one hundred and twenty bighas made a chavar. After fixing the standard unit of measurement, Chhatrapati Shivaji ordered Annaji Datto, his Sachiv to undertake the systematic survey of the land in the Konkan region of his kingdom. Accordingly, Annaji carried out the measurement of land accurately. But he did not rely on the Government officials, who did not possess the accurate knowledge of local land and its fertility. Annaji invited the senior local people, whose interest was directly connected with the land. In addition to this, the Pargana officials, and village officials were asked to take the help of prominent local people and carry out the survey jointly. Since in this survey of Annaji Datto, people from all sections were associated, it became the settlement of all people . This survey had outstanding features as under : - 1. The village land was categorized into four classes as first, second, third, and fourth respectively. 2. The record of each cultivator with the quality,level and quantity of land was prepared. 3. The record of land holding with crop wise estimation was prepared. 4. When the joint survey was submitted to Annaji Datto, he himself visited at least one village of each description, estimated its yield, compared his figures with the figures submitted by the joint survey munotes.in

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186 cultivators were to nourish them for a long time and wait little longer for reaping the production. As per the Jedhe Shakavali, Chhatrapati Shivaji had started Batai system of revenue in his Rohidkhore area in 1676. It seems that the Batai system means charging half produce as revenue did not prove profitable to the cultivators, who complained that this system raised the prices of food grains in the market. But this version is not accepted by most of the historians because this was not implemented throughout the Swaraj but in some segments of his kingdom. 15.3.1 Revenue Divisions under the Marathas :- Chhatrapati Shivaji had divided his kingdom in various revenue divisions for the convenience of recovery of the revenue in a systematic manner. But there is no unanimity on the number of revenue divisions. There are several versions of his revenue divisions as under: - 1. Justice Ranade says that there were sixteen revenue divisions, which Chhatrapati Shivaji created as Maval , Wai, Satara, Karad, Panhala, South Konkan, Thana, Trimbala, Baglan, Wanagad, Bednore, Kolhar, Shrirangpattam, Karnatak, Vellore and Tanjavar.. 2. S.N. Sen says that the revenue divisions of Chhatrapati Shivaji referred by Shankarji Malhar in his document seems to be more authentic, which were about thirty seven in total as Ramnagar, Jawhar, Bhiwand, Kalyan, Chaul, Rajapur, Kudal, Bhimgad, Phonde, Akole, Poona, Baramati, Indapur, Maval, Wai, Satara, Karad, Man, Phaltan, Belgaum, Sampgon, Gadag, Laxmeshwar, Navalgund, Nalyal, Bete giri, Malkapur, Kopal, Panhala, Tarab, Ajra, Junnar and Kolhapur. These divisions differed in size and number of talukas they contained. 15.3.2 Revenue Officers under the Marathas: - Chhatrapati Shivaji brought out several changes into the existing revenue system, which was in practice during the earlier rulers of Muslim dynasties. These changes were as:- 1. He reduced Mohammedan revenue divisions of Mauje, Parghana, Prant and Subhe to Mauje, Tarf and Prants . 2. He removed the hereditary revenue collection officers Patil and Kulkarni in the village and Deshmukh and Deshpande in the district. 3. Shivaji assigned the responsibility of collection of revenue to the officers who were directly appointed by him or the king. 4. He appointed Havalda, Karkum or Paripatyadar as in-charge of Tarf to collect the revenue of the same place. 5. He entrusted the responsibility of collecting revenue of Prant to Subhedar, Karkum or Mukhya Dandadhikari. 6.He assigned the responsibility to supervise over several Subhedars to Sarsubhedar as main officer. He had several other hands to assist him as Dewan Muzumdar, Phadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis, which were shifted from place to place in munotes.in

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188 4. The Peshwas assessed the land revenue of their farmers on the basis of standing crops in the land. Such crop was inspected by the inspectors appointed by the Government. There are several references regarding the appointment of such inspectors from various local officers and the payment made to them for the same job of inspection of the standing crops and recommendations made for the fixation of land revenue. 5. The government under the Peshwas categorized the land as superior, inferior and ordinary classes and accordingly, the land revenue was fixed or assessed. 6. For the purpose of assessment of the revenue the type of land as arable or irrigated was seen and the nature of crops had to be taken into account for the same. 7. The last and not the least principle at the time of land assessment was considered and that was the land whether being cultivated from several generations it was reclaimed recently. Thus, it is to be cleared that the scale applied for the land assessment and the manner and system used for the same differed from area to area. A document of 1740-1741 gives detail information of the land assessment crop wise as under; - 1. The land in Haveli and Tarf for rice was assessed at ten maunds per bighah, sugarcane at five maunds per bighah, vegetables two maunds per bighah while all summer crops were assessed at two maunds per bighah.2. A document of 1749-50 gives the following description of the land assessment in the Pargana of Chandwad . Jirayat land assessed at two rupees per bighah, rocky land at one Re. per bighah, new black land at four annas in the first year and rs. two in the fifth year per bighah. Bagayat land of sugarcane was assessed at ten Rs per bighah while newly irrigated sugarcane land at Rs. five in the first year and Rs ten in the fifth year per bighah. Although, the mango trees were not assessed separately, the mango trees of Patil were assessed at Re one per thousand fruits. 3. A document of 1772-73 gives a detailed description of the land assessment of Neral Taluka as under:- All Jirayat land was assessed at RS. 3 to5 per bighah, Rabi land assessed at Rs. two per bighah, hemp and sugarcane land at Rs. five per bighah, while coconut and palm land was assessed at Rs. four per bighah . It is observed that the cultivators were permitted to their land revenue either in kind or cash as per their convenience. 15.3.5 Assessment of Coconuts and Plantations: - Coconut and other plantations need much investment and a longer waiting period for getting return by way of production as well as fruits. Naturally, it was required that the assessment in this regard should be delayed till the production is reaped. The Peshwa Government knew this fact and did not levy tax on the coconut trees and other plantation like betelnuts for 15 to 20 initial years. This step was adopted in order to encourage the farmers to cultivate coconuts, betelnuts and other plantations regularly. There were some other measures also as the Government granted some concessions to the cultivators. In the same way, Brahmins munotes.in

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190 to bear the cost of its repair or desilting the reservoir. In short, the cultivators were helped and encouraged for more production and revenue. The Government under the Peshwas came to know that the cultivator used to borrow loans from private bankers or sahukars or moneylenders on the unreasonable terms and conditions and the cultivator was forced to pay much more interest than the actual amount he borrowed. The Peshwas wanted to stop this exploitation of the cultivator and started the policy of state loan or Tagai, which served double purposes as it supplied loan to the cultivator and saved the cultivator from the clutches of the private money lenders. The Peshwas had appointed special officer known as Mamlatdar. This Mamlatdar was to advance loan on his own to the cultivator less and easy terms and conditions and the cultivator was allowed to repay it in cash or kind as per his convenience. Thus, the Peshwas did every this possible to help the cultivator in distress. Justice Ranade regarding the revenue management of the Peshwas says that the Peshwas adopted a very careful policy of land assessment and revenue collection system. The Peshwas were very anxious to see that the cultivator was not oppressed at any cost. Ranade further says that Wellington a British officer, who carried his campaign of Maratha country found it highly cultivated revenue system, Jervis surveyed the whole Konkan and adopted the same in toto and Elphinstone recommended to continue the same system when the British conquered the Maratha territories later. Thus, the Peshwas paid every attention towards the betterment of cultivator, reduce problems and maximize the revenue of the Government. 15.4. OTHER TAXES During the period of Marathas, the cultivator and the people involved in trade and commerce were to pay some certain amount to several elements. These elements were as 1. Government 2. criminals 3. invaders 4. village officials 5. artisans and so on for various reasons. A cultivator was to pay land revenue to the Government, some share of food grain to village officers and artisans . The cultivator used to share his vegetable with the Patil and Kulkarni, the village officers as and when he brought the vegetable to the market . In short, the cultivator was, forced to pay several taxes to several elements on various occasions. These taxes were not alike to all and at all places or areas. They were different in nature as some of the taxes paid by the cultivator were levied once in a life time, the others were collected on special occasions while some other taxes were levied in particular locality on the eve of particular celebrations. Such taxes, the records say were around fifty in number, during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and they were around forty in the period of Peshwas. Some of them can be listed as under:- 5. Taxes under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji :- The almost all taxes under Shivaji cannot be identified completely but they are referred in various documents as :- Vethbigari , Farmasi , munotes.in

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192 4. When Shivaji reached Delhi, certain developments took place. Shivaji was insulted by the Mughal court and nothing could take place. After Shivaji reached back to his kingdom and commenced wars again the Mughal in 1667. Aurangzeb agreed to Shivaji’s claims, he was given a Jagir in Berar with the title of Raja, and Shivaji's son, Sambhaji was given a Mansab . But Chhatrapati Shivaji was not happy with these sanctions, he started dictating his own terms and conditions and imposed chauth and sardeshmukhi on Golconda and Bijapur kingdoms. Thus, Shivaji began to recover them regularly without any hinderances. 5. Shivaji received chauth and sardeshmukhi Rs. three lakhs from the Bijapur kingdom and Rs. five lakhs from the kingdom of Golconda jn 1668, which became the regular feature of the revenue of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the subsequent rulers. 6. In the year 1671, Shivaji extended his claims of chauthai and sardeshmukhi to other territories like Khandesh which was under the Mughal empire and recovered it from them. 7. Shivaji widened the area from where he recovered chauthai and sardeshmukhi to Portuguese territories in the year 1674. 8. Chhatrapati Shivaji invaded Karnataka in 1676 and forced the rulers of Bednore and Soonda to pay chauthai and sardeshmukhi. Thus, Shivaji had sadeshmukhi and chauthai a source of income in return for this tribute, Shivaji undertook to protect those rulers from the external aggressions. After the war of Independence, the Marathas extended the chauth and sardeshmukhi to Karnatak, Gangthadi, Berar, Khandesh, frontiers of Gujrat and Malwa as well as to the territories of Mughal empire. Later Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu received three sanads for Swarajya, Chahthai and Sardeshmukhi from the Mughal emperor in 1719. Shivaji claimed sardeshmukhi i.e. ten percent of the total collection or revenue on the basis that he considered himself as the hereditary Desmukh of his country . On the other hand the chauth recovered was twenty five percent of the total revenue and was reserved for the expenditure of the Government which was divided as under :- 1. Babti, was the twenty five percent of the total chauthai, which was for the use of the king and collected by his special officer, who was Peshwa or pratinidhi or pant Sachiv of the king . 2. Sahotra:- was the six per cent of the total collection of chauthai, which was reserved for the Pant Sachiv of the Chhatrapati 3. Nadgaunda, was the three per cent of the total chauthai, reserved for gifts and presents made by the king to various people on different occasions. The king did this out of his generousity and the needs of individuals. 4. Mokasa, was the sixty percent of the total collection of chauthai and was distributed among the sardars, who spent the amount on maintaining their troops . The sardeshmukhi also was divided in the same manner . Later on and used for various purposes of the swarajya as one of the sources of income of the Marathas. munotes.in

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194 year . 2. Oilman . The oilman was taxed Rs. 7 per oil mill per year . 3 . Shoemaker. The shoemaker was charged mohatarfa duty Rs. 6 per shop per year . Blacksmith. Mohatarfa was charged at Rs. 4 per shop per year on the blacksmith. 5. Shopkeeper was imposed with Rs. 7 as mohatarfa per shop per year. 6. Koli. Mohatarfa was imposed on Kolis Rs.8, 5, and 2 per palanquin per year on the basis of the size and nature of the palanquin . 7. Potter. Every potter was charged with Mohatarfa of Rs. 3 per wheel per year. 8. Basketmaker was taxed with Rs. 3 per house per year as mohatarfa. 9. Boatman. Every small boat was charged mohatarfa with 4 annas while every big boatman was taxed at the rate of 8 annas per trip as mohatarfa. 10. Gondhali. was taxed Rs. 3 per year for his work. 11. Stone cutter. or the stone quarry man was charged at 55 of his income as mohatarfa. 12. Mason was taxed with one Rs. for every month as mohatarfa . Thus, the tax mohatarfa varied place to place, shop to shop and profession to profession . It depended on the earning of each trader. 10.2. Zakat:- This was the tax levied on the goods in transit means movement from one place to another place. The Government charged octroi on such goods. In some countries such goods was heavily charged at various places in medieval period. Although, this situation was totally absent under the Marathas, the rulers had sternly instructed the concerned officials for not charging the same goods again. A document of 1745-46 states that Balaji Bajirao had specifically ordered officials at Burhanpur and Sironj that the goods moving between these places should be taxed zakat at one place only. Because zakat was farmed out to the highest bidders and the bidders, in order to get maximum taxes , used to charge again and again at various places. Many a times, this tendency created many difficulties in the policy of encouraging traders and merchants, inducing them to settle down in the Maratha country and generated prosperity. To remove some of the lapses in this taxation, the Maratha Government began to assess, levy and collect zakat through her officials On other occasions, the work of supervision was assigned to the officials like Darkdar and on some other time , even zamindars were authorized to supervise the process of assessment and collection of zakat. These charges were made to avoid any kind of oppression or exploitation of the traders artisans and merchants under the Marathas. 10.3 Remission in Customs Duties:- Due to several constraints , the Maratha Government agreed for remission in not only the land revenue but also in custom duties . The Government never wanted to oppress the tax payer because the prosperity of the kingdom and also the empire depended on the wellbeing of the tax payers . Due to drought in prants of Poona and Junnar, the document of the year 1763-64 states that the Peshwa Government ordered the Kamavisdars of those prants to recover only half zakat on some eatable items, which were badly hit by the drought . In the year 1769-70 there took place a total failure of crops, the Peshwa Government cancelled all duties on the purchase of bullocks and buffaloes in the same prants. In short, the Government adopted the munotes.in

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196 went on increasing to one crore hons. The exchange value of the hon was Rs. four and total revenue of Shivaji was around Rs. four crores. Besides this regular income from various taxes, the Marathas also got revenue from chauthai and sardeshmukhi was Rs. eighty lakhs each year. Jadunath Sarkar did not agree with the version of Sabhasad. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Explain the land survey of Annaji Datto. 2. What were the principles of assessment of land revenue under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji ? 3. Discuss the revenue divisions and revenue officers during the period of Shivaji . 4. What were the Principles of Land Assessment under the period of Peshwas? 5. Examine the assessment of coconuts, other plantations and waste land during the period of Peshwas . 6. Assess the policy of remission in land revenue under the rule of Peshwas. 7. What were the different taxes other than land revenue under the Marathas? 8. Give a brief account of chauthai and sardeshmukhi . 9. Assess the forests and the Mints as the sources of income under the Marathas. 10. Analyse the customs duties and excise duties as sources of income during the period of marathas . 15.5. SUMMARY During the period of Marathas several sources were used to generate income or revenue to the Government. A document known as ' Mestaka' mentions around important eight sources of revenue of the Marathas as Jakat means revenue raised from octroi, custom duties, Jaraib means revenue raised on arable land, Bagait revenue raised on garden land , Barnagjag revenue raised on mango-groves, Bargujarat revenue from creepers,Badasti revenue raised on trees , Katubana revenue raised on barren land and Jujuya. revenue from various items. In addition to these there were some direct and indirect taxes, chauth, sardeshmukhi , forests, mints and other duties . The land revenue was the major source of tax collection which was divided into two periods as land revenue under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the land revenue under the period of Peshwas. Chhatrapati Shjvaji was the founder of the Hindupadpadshahi , and the build of civil institutions , was well aware about the financial situation of his kingdom. He, therefore wanted to munotes.in

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198 3. Give an account of the chauthai and sardeshmukhi as source of income of the Marathas. 4. Assess the various sources of income of the Marathas. 15.7ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Dr. T. T. Mahajan, Industry, Trade, Commerce during the Peshwa Period. 2. M. G. Ranade , Rise of the Maratha Power. 3. A.R. Kulkarni , Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji . 4. S. N. Sen , Administrative system of the Marathas.  munotes.in

Watandari System
213 16.15 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the nature of watandari system during the period Marathas.
2. Discuss the various types of watan or inami lands under the Marathas.
3. What you understand by watan system? What were the different
duties and responsibilities of a watandar?
4. Assess the importance of watan system. What were the different
changes introduced in watan system under the Marathas?
16.16 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Dr. Balkrishna, Shivaji the Great. vol. IV.
2. C.V. Vaidya, Shivaji the Founder of Marathi swaraj.
3. A.R. Kulkarni, M aharashtra in the age of Shivaji.
4. Mountstuart Elphinstone, A report on the Territories conquered from the
Peshwa.

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216 was held weekly and industrial products were exchanged also searched out for artisans. 3. Correlation between caste and occupation :-During this period the occupation, depended on the caste. The people never went beyond the calling of their family. Naturally, the village artisans had very safe and secured place in the village community. The simplicity of the village life made themselves sufficient and self-contented with whatever they produced and manufactured in the village. 4 Family as a training centre :- Under the Marathas no new industries were and occupations were undertaken except traditional source of income of the family. Naturally, what parents followed the trade or occupation was continued by the children. Father taught the son what he did. Hence, the woman, children helped the family head in his trade or occupation. 5 Demand and supply :- During this period , there was no use of any electrical power or steam power in the process of production . Consequently, there was very limited production of industries or handicrafts. It became very easy to the artisans to balance between the demand and supply principle of the commerce. 6. Constant Lifestyle (Fashion) :- The next feature of the industry under the Marathas was that there was no constant change in the taste and liking of the people. The people in general were conservative and never accepted any new faction suddenly. Thus, the fashion and type of the people remained constant. 7. Migration of Artisans:- under the Marathas there were no formal institutions for training the artisans. The artisans like Tagatis, Momins, Padmashalis, Khetris and Niralas, were in constant demand. These artisans were required for various industries and handicrafts mostly textile industry. The Maratha Government used to induce them to migrate and settle in their territories. The Marathas also helped them variously as1. provided them with a place to live. 2. Extended state patronage 3. exempted them from house taxes 4. Paid them monthly salary and. 5. Advanced financial assistance. 8 Government compensation to Merchants :- Another important feature of the industry was that the government used to make up losses if any merchant ,trader or artisan suffered due to fire ,flood or any natural calamities . Vasudeo Joshi reports that the merchants from Kalyan received Rs. seven hundred as compensation for gutting his shop in fire from the Peshwas. 9. State control over certain Industries ;- In order to guard the interest of common man, to increase production of industries and check some unhealthy practices in industry , the Maratha Government mostly the Peshwas brought certain industries under the state control, which were as under :- munotes.in

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218 country became a centre for weaving and textile industry. Solapur being close to Hyderabad, the Capital city of Nizam, it was easy to invite artisans like Momins, Khetris, Lingayat, Koshtis and Niralas from the territory of Nizam to be involved in the weaving and spinning industry at Solapur. The next important factor required for this industry was raw cotton, which was produced in and around Solapur. The raw cotton was separated from its seeds and the lint was converted into manageable planks, which were used for spinning, the lint was turned into yarn and finally it was put, in a specific mechanism, and the process of weaving was carried out. Thus, this industry gave cotton to the people. But there is no detail statistical account available. It cannot be said with some degree of certainty that the artisans were paid on the basis of day, month or they were paid on the basis of numbers which they produced. Even, there is no idea about the number of artisans working in this industry, But it is said that the cotton manufactured here came to be known as dhotis and saris, which were of better-quality cotton then the cotton manufactured at Chandwad and Nagpur the other industrial centres of the Marathas. Another centre of textile industry was Poona, which was the capital of the Peshwas. Although hand loom industry was housed in Poona, that did not give good quality of cloth to people in the city. The cloth manufactured at Poona was very course and it had no demand from the people of the Court of Peshwa. Naturally, the officials and ministers of the court of Peshwa ordered their cloths from prominent other centers of the Marathas. b) Silk :- This was one more industry functioned under the Marathas. It is said that Raghuji Naik encouraged and declared facilities to the Artisans from Gujarat, who were very skilled in this industry to settle in and around Nasik. Naturally, Yeola in Nasik became popular for this industry and created its monopoly in Silk industry in the period of Marathas. It is said that there was no silk weaving was under taken in Poona in the eighteenth century but due to the Peshwas, Poona became a thriving silk industry centre. As Raghuji Naik in Nashik, Angres encouraged the silk weavers to settle down at Chaul and provided them with several facilities. Naturally, Chaul became another important centre for silk industry. The next centre of silk industry was Paithan, in the area of Aurangabad. Paithani a very precious and attractive sari was named after the manufacturing place Paithan. Some people also called the same piece of cloth as Pitambari, which was a fascination of each woman during that period. One more silk industry centre came to prominence which was known Jalanpur or Jalana. But Jalanpur was not so popular as Paithan. Although, raw material for this industry was available in the area of Karnataka , it was also imported from Bengal , China and Persia. Then Mumbai was under the British it was a developed trading and industrial centre in the eighteenth century . Cotton, silk , dyeing and other processes of the textile industry were carried out in Mumbai under the leadership of Mukadam . munotes.in

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220 in the warfare. They were as swords, daggers and lancers. The iron ore mines were found in the Kalaghat and Vajreshwari hills. The foundries for purification of iron and manufacturing appliances for domestic and also for export were located at various places. Indalwai in Nizamabad district of today's Andhra state was one of them. Moreland says that in 1660 the Dutch merchants on Coromandel were in a great need of pig iron, iron bands, iron bars and cannon balls. They wanted these weapons from the Marathas. Shivdon was one more gun manufacturing factory of Marathas indicated the high technical skill of export quality weapons. In addition to these weapons, the use of iron in daily life was immense. There were some small articles like nails, horse and bullock shoes to be fitted to them .There were certain other articles needed to prepare saddles for horses and bullocks and buffaloes. Blacksmiths and ironsmiths were the artisans involved in this industry. These artisans needed a large anvil, some hammers, and a furnace to get all these tools prepared. These artisans used to charge twelve annas per horse or bullock for their shoes, that were used in warfare for various activities. 2. Brass and Copper Industry :- Under the Marathas this industry also flourished. The artisans involved in this industry were Tambat or coppersmith, who were invited to settle down at each and every village. Because they were the people who used to manufacture utensil and vessels required in daily life. Mostly, the people from rich class or sardars used to buy the utensils made of brass and copper. Prof. Gadgil in his socio-economic survey of Poona says that in addition to utensils, the people under the Marathas used to make small and show pieces of brass and copper like clippings and bangles. Even the Peshwas ordered their officers to trace coppersmiths in the neighboring countries and induce them to settle down in Poona, manufacture the utensils more to meet the growing demands of all economically well of people. Among the important centres of this industry Kalyan was a very popular centre for brass work . A document of 1771-72 indicates that the artisans like Tambats and coppersmiths were also engaged in the manufacture of cannon balls of artillery needed in the war. One of such factories was in Poona. It seems that the coppersmiths were not in sufficient number in Poona, therefore once they were engaged in the factory, they were paid considerably good payment. In order to retain them the Peshwas granted them inami villages. The raw material for the industry of brass and copper was brought from Mumbai, which was under the British control. 3. Gold and Silver Industry :- Although, this industry was in existence at each village, it became an urban industry under the Peshwas. Parasnis and Vad say that a goldsmith family working at a village near Sangamner in the middle of the eighteenth century moved to Poona because the joint family of the goldsmith could earn only Rs. 50 to Rs. 200 a year, which was hardly munotes.in

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222 4. Ordnance Factories:- Moreland says that the most remarkable form of industry under the Marathas was the Karkhanas. which the Marathas had established at their capital to manufacture and store arms and ammunition, robes, furniture, and ornaments. Although the Karkhanas did not always represent the general industrial development of the country but they certainly indicated the technical skills and organizational sophistication of the Maratha period. It is said that the Marathas were dependent on the Europeans for war ammunitions up to the first decade of the eighteenth century. There are several evidences that Chhatrapati Shahu had contacted the British Governor of Mumbai for arms and ammunitions. Some other records show the Kanhoji Angre had written a letter to William Aislabie, the Governor of Mumbai for supplying with some arms, ammunitions, gun powder and shots. Capton William Gordon, English envoy visited Maratha foundry at Poona in 1739 says that Peshwa Bajirao I founded the foundry for manufacturing arms and ammunition, which was the result of his own ambition of converting the Maratha raj into empire. In the course of creating the Maratha empire, hostilities had increased to the maximum height with the enemies and there was no sufficient supply of war ammunitions from the Europeans. Naturally, this situation led Bajirao to establish the above foundry at Poona, which proved very useful to the Marathas. In 1769, Peshwa Madhavrao established one more factory in Poona itself. In addition to Poona, there were Several other centres where factories for manufacturing guns, bombshells and cannon balls were produced they were Ambegaon, Junnar, Nagothana, Kalyan and Purandhar. Bhave says that the factory established by Madhavrao was larger than other factories and employed more than one hundred and fifty workers in it. Although, there is no detail account available about their payment, but it is mentioned that the female slaves who were employed there were paid one rupee each for their overtime work Thevenot and Caveri say that during the eighteenth century, the Marathas had employed all forced labourers of artisans of different kinds in their factories of arms and ammunitions. Among these forced labourers, there were some coppersmiths also, who were paid variously as some were paid monthly wages and some other were granted inam villages to motivate the artisans to work hard with optimum skill and dexterity. Moreover, factories producing guns and rockets also were established. Bagalkot and Jainabad were the important gun factories. Tin, pewter, iron and Babul wood required as raw material was acquired from the vicinity while iron was indented from Mumbai. In the same way rocket factory was established and run under the supervision of Bala Khanderao at Nasik. This factory produced around three hundred rockets per month and caused around Rs. five each. The size and shape of the rocket was like a tube of iron of eight to ten inches long and of two inches in diameter. There are several references that the Marathas used rockets of this factory in various wars. Despite working of several factories under Marathas at different places but they could not meet the requirements of munotes.in

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224 Surat, who also built several boats which were light, pliant and quick in movement mostly used for coastal traffic. Thus, this industry was also flourished under the Marathas. 17. 6. OTHER INDUSTRIES UNDER THE MARATHAS There were several handicrafts and cottage industries functioned during the Marathas. Among such industries woodwork, Horn work, ivory work, leather and saddle, making industry, rope making, pottery, Jaggery, oil-mill, building industry, fishery, salt making, Liquor and paper making industries were well known industries. These industries are explained as under:- 1. Wood work:- This handicraft was in great demand in this period. The woodwork included furniture, carts, carriages, palanquins and chariot of various stories. This industry developed due to nobles, and feudal lords, who needed the woodwork mentioned above and constructed wooden palaces which had different types of wooden designs and carving on the sides and doors. Among the popular wood carved palaces and mansions Shanivarwada, spacious houses like Shinde, Holkar, Ghorpade and Hingne's mansion were well known. The raw material like timber and teak woods brought from Savalya Ghat, Kalyan, Bhiwandi and the jungle of Jawhar. 2. Horn work :- The hornwork of different kinds like card trays, inkstands, snuffboxes, cups, idols, bulbs. deer, cobras, combs, chains and variety of animals were very popular among the wealthy people. Carpenters used to do this work from the bison's horn imported from Malbar. There were several popular centres for this work which were Malvan, Rajapur Vijaydurg , working since centuries together. 3. Ivory work :- Another handicraft developed into an industry was the ivory work . The fashion to use the ivory comb led to Audutrao Dhandhar Palkar to establish a factory at Poona. The popularity of this ivory work also pressurized Abaji Ava, a carpenter to open one more factory in Poona itself - during the period of Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao. The raw material for this industry constituted ivory, which was imported from Mumbai. But there is no detail account available regarding the total number of artisans working in the industry and the remuneration paid them. 4 . Leather Industry:- This was one of the handicrafts, spread throughout the Maratha country. Shoemakers and cobblers, traditional artisans were involved in this handicraft. They prepared shoes, saddles, leather buckets and several other articles required by cultivators in the process of agriculture. It is said that with cobblers, Jingars also entered in this handicraft, which became an industry due to crushing demand of saddles in wars. Chafekar says that due to the popularity of this industry the Government began to tax the industry. munotes.in

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226 The Government had levied taxes as one of the sources of income. In order to get much income and tax the Government leased out several salt pans to private individuals as salt farm at Mauje Bhoidar in Ghodbunder had been granted to a person from Thane on the condition of payment of seven hundred khandies of salt per annum. To enhance the production of salt to increase its export , the Peshwa Government had announced several concessions to the salt manufacturers as low tax , exemption from the tax as well as no tax on its transport in the internal market. 10. Liquor industry (Brewery) :- Although, this has been very old industry in the country, the Marathas restricted brewing liquor to license holder only. Sarkar says this policy of the Peshwas was influenced by their religious tenets and no any other reason was responsible for the same. The Bhandaris and Kolis were the people permitted to distil liquor for their consumption as well as to the use of Christians, armed forces and European people. Sugar candy, mauva, coconut and palm trees were used as raw material for brewing liquor. Although, the Marathas taxed this industry as Re. one each coconut tree per annum , could not collect considerable taxes due to limited production and consumption of liquor. 11. Paper Industry :- This was one more industry functioning under the Marathas. Junnar and Daulatabad were the important centres of paper manufacturing industry in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But the Junnar paper factory was shifted to Poona for the convenience of transport and functioning of the factory. Even then the Maratha paper industry could not withstand the competition posed by the European paper industries.Thus, the Maratha period had these and many other handicrafts, cottage and small scale industries . Check your Progress : - 1. Enumerate the characteristics of industries under the Marathas. 2. Examine briefly the handicrafts and cottage industries prevailed during the period of Marathas. 3. Assess the cotton industry working under the Marathas . 4. Bring out the important centres of the silk and woollen industries during the period of Marathas. 5. Discuss briefly the iron industry and its importance under the Marathas . 6. What were the factors that led to develop the Brass, Copper, Silver and Gold industries under the Peshwa Government ? 7. Give a brief account of Ordnance factories of the Marathas . 8. Describe the shipbuilding industry during the period of Marathas. munotes.in

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228 people encouraged this industry. Various articles, show pieces, gods, goddess and jewellery were made of silver and gold. Artisans from various places were imported for this industry. Ordnance factories were very important because they manufactured arms and ammunition to be used in the war. The Marathas were to import arms and gun powder, cannon ball and shots from the European companies but these companies never used to send them on time to the Marathas. This led Bajirao I and Madhavrao I to establish ordnance factories at Poona, Ambegaon, Kalyan, Nagothana and Nasik, where rocket factory functioned round the clock and produced 270 rockets a month. The next and very important industry was ship-building which required teak wood. Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Shahapur area had thick jungle of the same wood. Therefore, the centres like Rajapur, Nagothane, Kalyan, Mumbai developed to a large extent and ships of world rank were built there. Apart from these industries, there were several other industries functioning under the Marathas as Wood work, Horn work, Ivory work, Leather industry, rope making industry, Jaggery making, Fishery, salt making, Liquor industry and paper industry. Thus, the Maratha period had these and other industries under them. 17. 8. QUESTIONS 1. Assess the general features and characteristics of industries under the Marathas. 2. Give an account of textile industry during the period of Marathas 3. What were the different metal industries existing during the period of Marathas? What role did the ordnance factories play in the warfare during the period of Marathas ? 4. Write a detailed note on the ship-building industry under the Marathas. 5. Analyse the role of handicrafts and cottage industries in the life under the Marathas. 17.9. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Bhave , Peshwekalin Maharashtra. 2. Chafekar , Peshwaichya Sawalit 3. Agaskar, Early History of the Bombay Docks and Ship- building, Potdar commemoration volume . 4. Apte, History of Maratha Navy and Merchantship.  munotes.in

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230 7. explain the water routes of trade and commerce. 8. know the problems in Trade and commerce under the Marathas. 9. grasp the idea of passport and license for transport and communication. 10. comprehend the Ghatmarg transport and communication. 18.1. INTRODUCTION Trade involves the sale, transfer and exchange of goods and services. It covers buying and selling activities of goods. Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services, the exchange may take place between two parties or it may happen among more than two parties During the Maratha period trade was simple, it was in the form of barter system i.e. exchange of goods for goods and services only. Naturally, trade during the Marathas was not so complicated as today. Trading activities have been carried out from the time immemorial for the satisfaction of human wants. These activities under the Marathas were not profit making activities, but considered as socio- economic activities, which helped the people to survive and substitute in a better way. The Marathas had the home trade, wholesale trade, retail trade, foreign trade, import trade, export trade, and aid-to-trade. Aid -to-trade means the auxiliary activities which made trade easy and possible without these activities national or international trade would have not been possible and could have been local trade only. Commerce during the period of Marathas dealt with distribution part of trade i.e. the movement of goods from the place of production to the place of consumption and removed all difficulties or hindrances in the movement of the goods. These hindrances were as the hindrance of person, means buyer , because the principle of demand and supply was balanced , the hindrance of finance was not in existence because either village community or Government financed it , the hindrance of place , time and risk also did not exist because protection was extended by the Government. Thus, the commerce under the Marathas as Evelyon Thomas says dealt with buying and selling of goods, the exchange of commodities and the distribution of finished products. The trade and commerce under the Marathas can be studied with the help of the following points . 18.2. COMMODITIES OF TRADE Although , there were several articles which were sold and purchased , some of the most important were as under :- 1. Foodgrains :- The foodgrains produced , sold and consumed were wheat, mung , peas , til , nachna ,maize , vama , paddy , gram, masur ,beans, arhar , pulses and rice of different varieties . Despite this the British, the Portuguese, the Dutch , the Muslims and the Persian merchants brought different kinds of foodgrains to various trading centres during this period , which were sold and purchased here. munotes.in

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231 2. Fruits and other Edibles:- Among the fruits consumed the most were watermelons, coconuts, jack- fruits, sugarcane, lemon, plantains, mangoes, almonds, vegetables, cashewnuts, betel-nuts, betel- leaves, milk, fish and butter. They were regularly brought to trading centres and sold there. 3. Spices:- In the spices nutmeg, asafetida, cloves, vermillion, gallnut, mace, red lead, garlic, onion, walnut, ambergis, pepper, saffron, camphor, cardamom, turmeric, mercury, jaggery, sugar- candy, molasses, ginger, red pepper, sandal, gopichandan, scented oils, honey, ghee and coconuts were there. They were brought to the centres for sale and purchase. 4. Clothes & cloth pieces:- The cloth pieces brought to markets were of cotton, silk and woolen. Among such pieces of them were shawls, chints, pasodi, blankets, godhadi, dhotis, sarees, tafta, chinatafta, sela, kocki, mahaban, mungipaten, musadar, patar, Mahamudi, muslin, kad, pitambar, sakhalad, coarse cloth, purtakali and ghati. The contemporary records show that the above cloth pieces were brought from Telangana, Malbar, Vidarbha, Gujarat, Bengal, Ayodhya and Mysore. 5. Animals:- with the above articles, there were some animals brought and sold in the market. They were horses, bullocks, buffaloes and sheep. 6. Miscellaneous Articles:- Among this category the commodities of trade were small boats, shoes, combs, winnowing fans, wooden boxes, jute, soaps, carts, cots, lanterns, plates, ropes, lead and copper. 7. Slaves:- During this period slaves as male and female were brought to various centres of trade and commerce. Despite, these commodities, there were several other articles in trade. 18.3. MARKETS There were markets in villages as well as in towns, commodities from within and outside were brought to such markets. The articles the East India Company brought to market were cloth rashes, broad-cloth, scarlet, seedlack, sticklack, quick-silver, tin , guns . gun powder, iron , lead, copper, course cloth. The Portuguese Company supplied fine cloth while the Dutch Company supplied copper, which was purified in Japan and shifted to India. Naturally, commodities brought from outside were other than foodgrain. The local and the neighbouring people brought their foodgrain to the market, exchanged them with the available and needed commodities. It is said that there used to be some permanent shops which used to deal with commodities from outside, whereas locals mostly brought their foodgrains in which items like butter, betelnuts and leaves, fruits, vegetables, coconuts , meat and several other commodities were there . The merchants from outside halted there for one night and moved to another place for the same purpose. This was known as the weekly market, which supplied the commodities needed in daily life. The Patil was to look after the village market. munotes.in

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232 1. Shete-Mahajan :- In addition to the weekly market in each village , there was a market at kasba which was bigger and used to be of many shops than the village market . Generally, at kasba , shops were of wine dealers , tailors , weavers , cloth merchants, cobblers or shoemakers, vegetable dealers and oil pressers . As Patil was responsible for weekly market Sete was responsible for the maintenance and development of the peth and kasba market. The State Government paid Shete for their responsibilities and services rendered towards the development of the market. Shete had to induce the dealers to develop the market . He was empowered to recover some nominal fees from the shopkeepers, exercised some powers of police and magistrate , attended the meetings of the village council and advise them in any matter concerning development of the village , kasba and peth . Shete was a mirasdar of the peth, He had house in the peth , managed the peth , kept uptodate record of the market and helped Ghatpandes in their work of collection of octroi. 2. Development of Market ;- under the Marathas the development and expansion of Peth or Market mostly depended on the Government . The Maratha rulers very carefully and considering all aspects developed new areas by establishing new peths or markets. For example, in 1657, Jijabai, the mother of Chhatrapati Shivaji issued a sanad to establish a peth in her name at Pasan. The officer, who received the sanad, was to enjoy all rights and powers of the market as Kotwalki, Pansarkhi, Bidwaipan, Mahajanpan and Shetepan, which were explained in detail in the Sanad. During the period of Marathas, Peth at Audh and powers enjoyed by the Sete over there treated as role model. The Government, therefore issued orders to the concerned officials to grant all perquisites to the Shetes of new Jijapur peth , Malkapur peth , Paraspura peth , and Vithapura peth which were enjoyed by the Sete of Audh and extend them all sort of cooperation and security as and when they sought. The net result of such order was that maximum traders and shop holders and artisans rushed to those peths and developed them within a short span of time . As a matter of fact, the Sete used to keep the record of the peth , in which the names and nature of the shops were recorded . New shops, merchants and artisans often increased the list of the market . But Sete made a distinction between new shops and old shops, mirashi shops and upari shops or the professionals and artisans . 3 . Security of Market or Peth :- The development and spread of market or peth depended upon the security of the area or the place where the market or peth was located. There occurred warfares frequently and no area was ultimately safe. This fact discouraged the shopholders and traders to develop a particular area the optimum because that attracted enemies and their attacks . Keeping this situation in mind, every official tried to reassure the traders and merchants for the safety of their shop, commodities and lives . In connection with kasba at Sirala, Chandrarao More of Jawali had announced that if any merchant or trader at Sirala lost even their piece of hemp , he would compensate them with a chain of munotes.in

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233 gold and silver -double in number. Ramchadrapant Amatya notes that Chhatrapati Shivaji was well aware about all odds . He was the king of vision, he wanted to develop markets in his dominion. In order to achieve those goals , he formed his commercial policy in such away that he granted concessions , exemptions to merchants, traders and artisans as well as maintained law and order in his kingdom. Naturally, markets were developed and prosperity reigned in his kingdom. Amatya further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji treated all merchants as the ornaments of his kingdom and the glory of the king . The goods and commodities which were not produced and available , they were brought from outside by merchants and the kingdom was enriched. The merchants and the traders used to help the king in the hours of difficulty, the capital was made available and calamities were averted many times. Shivaji, therefore, tried to motivate the merchants and artisans to settle down in his dominion. He never disregarded,disrespected and punished them severely but protected them for the benefit of development of market and prosperity of his kingdom . Chhatrapati Shivaji was well aware about the intention of all European Companies trading with his kingdom. In order to foil their objectives of territorial expansion and proselytization. Shivaji instructed his officials and the people that the contact of Europeans and the Arab merchants should be confined to trade and commerce only. They should neither be given any place in interior part to settle down, nor be allowed to sea forts and important well as secret places in the kingdom. If at all, it is necessary, the place for factory of Europeans can be given at low-lying area or it should be within the range and control from the neighboring town or locality to reach it in the time of eventuality to avoid any danger . Thus, the king had taken up such several precautions while developing trade and commerce under him. 18.4. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION It was carried out by several routes and means under the Marathas. There were major two routes as 1. Land route 2. water route. The Marathas connected Poona through several land routes for transport and communication. Among them some of the important land routes known as highways were used for long transport and communication. They were as under:- 1. Poona to Agra :- The first highway that was connected with several important centres as Aurangabad, Ajanta, Burhanpur Sironj, Narvar , Gwalior and Dabalpur . This route proved profitable in trade and commerce and prospered the Marathas kingdom. 2 Mumbai to Panvel :- The second highway came to prominence under the Marathas was Mumbai to Panvel . This road had important centres as Kalyan, Badlapur , Dahiwadi and Talegaon. This was the most secured and safe route for trade and commerce munotes.in

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234 3. Poona and Shrirangapattam:-The third highway between Poona and Shrirangapattam was the longest route under the Marathas. The important places for trade and commerce on this highway were Pandharpur,Vijapur Jat, Galgale, Bagalkot, Anaji, Harihar, Chitradurgashire and Nammangal. 4. Poona to Bhaganagar:- was the fourth highway, had other places of importance between Poona and Bhaganagar were Supe , Baramati , Tuljapur Udgir , Bhalki, Bidar and Golconda. 5. Poona to Konkan :- The fifth highway from Poona to Konkan was through several passes, because, Konkan area had many uphills and mountains, one of the important and difficult passes was the Borghat pass. Despite, these highways, there were some short routes used for internal transport and communication, they were as:- 6. Poona to Nasik:- This road connected to the important and popular places like Bhogpur Peth , Khed ,Chakan , Bosari , and Bramapuri , between Poona and Nasik . 7. Poona to Kolhapur:- Kolhapur had been a popular place for its market as well as a religious centre. Naturally , the route established linkage with Walwe , Pusevali and Nhavi and increased the affluency of the Marathas. 8. Poona to Pandharpur:- The important route brought in contact the trading centres like Mandve, Theur , Patas , Sangwi and Aklu j. 9. Poona to Satara:- This was the road brought in touch with Saswad, theplace where the Peshwas lived before they shifted to Shanivarwada ,Poona . The other places were Jejuri , Dahigao and Mahuti. 10. Poona to Aurangabad:- The places brought in net on this route were Koregaon, Ranjangaon, Ghodnadi, Jatagaon, Ahmednagar, and Kayegaontake. This route proved very useful for transporting foodgrains and other commodities of cash and commerce. 11. Poona to Nagpur :- route covered Aurangabad, Dahadi, Jafrabad, Balapur,and Alajpur. 12. Poona to Dharur:- This route lays through the centres like Theur, Walvi, Adalgaon, Bhosegaon, Singavi, Dhanora, Barsi, Pangaon, Pedgaon, Beed and Kage. This road connected major parts of today's Marathwada with the de facto capital city of the Marathas. 13. There were some other routes as Kalyan to Aurangabad, which connected Kalyan, Murbad, Umbarpada, Taloli pass, Malsaj, Pimpalgaon and Junner. The next was from Junnar to Ahmednagar 14 Poona was connected to Solapur also, where cotton weaving and spinning industry had flourished.Uralikanchan, Belsar, Jejuri, Pandharpur, Banhoolgaon and Singoli were other important places on this route. Poona was connected to Surat and Gujrat also. munotes.in

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235 Despite these highways and routes connecting Poona, Satara and Kolhapur there were some other passes which were used as roads for transport and communication. These passes were mostly in Konkan area of the kingdom. These passes were like Borghat pass , Kesari pass , Diva pass and Karjat pass. Moreover, the various campaigns of Peshwas formed new routes through different territories as Peshwas campaign to Mysore created a totally different route through Gadag, nagmangal and Krishna river. Bhave says that in 1735 , Radhabai went on pilgrimage of Mathura while Saraswatibai, the wife of Gopalrao Patwardhan went to Kashi from Miraj, had adopted different routes to Kashi. 18.5. MEANS OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION The period of Marathas was not so advanced as today in the vehicular transport. It had some basic traditional means of transport as 1. Bullocks 2. Buffaloes 3. Camels 4. Elephants 5. Palanquins and 6 Bullock carts . These animals were supplied by some professionals, who were Lamans , Banjaras, Naiks and Chavans. It is said that these communities used to maintain thousands of such animals. Pamaji Naik , Govind Naik and Bhuke brothers of Chavan community owned fifteen thousands of bullocks , which were used to transport goods and luggage from one place to another. Despite these animals, carts driven by them ,used to shift the goods from one place to various other places. Chafekar says that no carts were useful in some parts of the kingdom, because they were hilly areas and there were no good roads suitable to ply carts. Naturally, animals like bullocks , horses and buffaloes were used to transport goods and luggage. Bhave says that the Peshwas provided several carts to Govind Patwardhan to shift his household luggage from Miraj to Mangalvedhe. It means carts were the important means for transport while chariot was used to carry the noble people from place to place.In addition to these means palanquin and elephants were used by royal people for their own travel. Bhave further says that Peshwa Mahadevrao used to travel on elephant from Poona to Wai as and when it was required as well as he also went from Poona to Nasik on elephant to see his ailing mother over there . 18.6. SECURITY OF TRADE AND COMMERCE The Maratha Government had taken care of trade and commerce in transition. The Government paid attention towards repair of roads regularly. 1. S.N. Sen says that in 1783-84 the Maratha Government had ordered the Mamlatdar Shivner to repair the Shivner -Malsej road regularly. In the same way the zakat Kamvisdar of the same Pargana was informed to provide sufficient funds and keep close watch on the trade practices in Malsej pass. munotes.in

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236 2. Bhave says that in order to make trade safe and protected, the Peshwa Nanasaheb ordered to plant trees on both sides of highway. 3. The next facility which was created for security of trade and commerce was the construction of Dharamshalas for resting and halting at the difficult roads and the passes . There were several open wells constructed along the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants . 4. The Maratha Government also provided coolies with their carts to help traders on the road . Such coolies were paid two annas each and each bullock was paid four annas if it was used for trade and commerce. 5. Dr. Hove says that the Marathas opened chaukies on important highways and kept guards to protect traders from untoward incidents. It should not be construed that the trade on highways was unsafe. But as a precautionary measure the guards were posted there. 18.7. WATER ROUTE TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION During this period water routes proved very useful for transport and communication. Hove says that ferry boats were used for crossing big rivers in Konkan region because rivers like Nagothana , Pen , Bankot and Mahim were very big and there were no other means to cross them. These boats could carry around 100 to 123 people in one trip. The traders and merchants used river routes for internal trade and sea routes for external trade i.e. import and export of their goods. They had trade contacts with Persian ports like Bassara, Muscat and Ormuz ,all important trading centres of Europe, China, Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Coromandel isles Mozambique and ports on the Eastern Africa. The Marathas also usedtheir ports or centres like Surat Broach, Ahmood, Jambulsar, Belapur, Kalyan, Nagothana, Rajapur, Alibag, and Bassein for trade and commerce 18. 8. PROBLEMS IN TRADE AND COMMERCE The trade whether it was through land route or water route was not always safe. There were several factors which disrupted the trade and commerce and led to damage and loss to the traders irretrievably. Among such factors raids, wars, piracy and robbery were carried out by enemies. In 1763-64 Nizam had attacked Poona, looted Junnar , Ambalapur , and Hate and destructed the trade and commerce totally. In 1759-60, Kolis in and around Kalyan looted traders in that area. Although, the Government assured the traders about the safety and security but they traders could not recover the loss caused for many years. The next factor was a warfare. The Marathas had to fight with the British because of their imperialistic tendencies and causing losses to the trade of Marathas deliberately. These wars came to be known as the Anglo-Maratha wars which were fought in 1. 1774-75, 2. 1778-79, 3. 1780-81. The Marathas sustained much loss in their trade and commerce. Among the pirates Arabs and Portuguese were very dangerous and pirated the Maratha trade in the deep waters of the Arabian sea . Hamilton has given a munotes.in

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237 detailed description of piracy in the waters of Bassein, Warai, Shirgaon, Thane, Kolaba, Vijaydurg, Khanderi and Malvan. He further says that although, the Marathas stationed their navy in the waters, the Arabs and European pirates based at Malvan, maintained ships of one hundred fifty tons and carried out piracy without notice to Maratha navy at Malvan port. In the same way the robbers on the land routes used to rob traders and merchants. The trade robbery at Damrule, Burhanpur and Aurangabad were very dreaded and incurred much loss to the trade and commerce of the Marathas. Carre, a French traveller, who travelled India and came to Deccan between 1672 and 1674 says that journey either by sea route or land route had several dangers and difficulties. The sea journey had the constant fear of Malbar pirates while land route journey was haunted by raids of Siddi and other coastal princes. Tavernier another European traveler says that one who wanted to travel through the Konkan area should take along twenty to thirty armed men with bows and arrows who could pace with the carriers of his palanquin or cart or chariot. factory records say that the ways and passes unsafe and dangerous because the thieves and inland Rajas plundered the merchants and travellers. Thevenot, one more foreign traveller says that he always hired two peons while in travel, who were well equipped with swords, dagger, bow, musket and lance . Careri another traveller also opined that there was no safe travel in some parts of India. The East India Company officials used to hire some soldiers to protect their persons and property in the travel. 18.9. PASSPORT License, permit or passport had been a source of income during this period . Although , the idea of license brought to India by the Portuguese , it was used and practiced by almost all rulers during this period. License was purchased by travellers as a permission to enter the territories for various purposes and generally sought the warranty of his security. Abbe Carre mentions that when he travelled in Deccan and Konkan region, he had purchased such passport from the officials of the king at upper Cheul. He travelled throughout the kingdom of Chhatrapati Shivaji without any danger and apprehension. Abbe Carre travelled through almost all ports and forts, he remembers his contact with the Maratha officials at Cheul , Rajapur , Kalvan and Sangameshwar very well. 18.10. GHATMARGA TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION In addition to land route and sea route, Ghat route was used for transport and communication, The western part of the Maratha kingdom or Maharashtra occupied by the ranges of Sahyadri mountain came to be known as the western Ghats. These Sahyadri ranges formed the western border of the Deccan and are around one thousand miles in length. It also gave birth to several important passes. These passes came to be known as 1. Thal pass 2. Pimpri pass 3. Bhor or Khandala pass 4. Par munotes.in

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238 passs 5. Amba pass 6. Phonda pass 7. Amboli pass and 8. Nana pass. These passes made transport and communication easier between Junnar and Konkan , Mumbai and Poona, Ratnagiri and Kolhapur , and between Poona and Thana. Along with these passes, there were several pathways which had chaukis at each pathway and ghat. These chaukis were assigned the duties of supervision on the trade and commerce through the passes and collect cess or octroi from the traders. Ghatpande was the hereditary officer in charge appointed by the king at each ghat for maintenance and patrolling the trade and commerce through the ghat. The Ghatpande was assisted by his subordinate officers as Patki, Dangi, Pansare, Modvi and Metkari in various responsibilities at the chauki. Apart from these officials, there were several security guards, who were known as Gujaras. These guards escorted the traders and merchants from one ghat to another and they were allowed to charge some nominal fees from one to twelve rukas depending on the goods transported by the traders and merchants. These guards were to submit the account of the charges or fees they collected to ghatpande every month after deducting their scheduled charges for themselves. Otherwise, the Government issued the warning and punished them subsequently. Despite this arrangement at the ghat chauki , the king appointed a special officer to check whether the traders and merchants were treated properly by ghatpande or his officials and facilitate the smooth collection of tolls through the ghats and pathways. Chhatrapati Shivaji encouraged trade in his kingdom, he encouraged the trade of the East India Company as per his level best . However, Factory Records say that the traders in 1663-65 under the Marathas were in confused state of mind. This was due to the fact that Shivaji had challenged the Adilshahi and Mughal powers in the country. Shivaji's Afzal Khan episode not only gave a death blow to the Adilshahi power in the Deccan but also raised the prestige of Shivaji in the eyes of the traders and merchants. Shivaji in another incident had humbled Shahista Khan totally in 1663. Bernier, an European traveller says that these two incidents generated prestige of the Maratha ruler. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Describe the commodities in trade during the period of Marathas. 2. Explain the important markets under the Marathas. 3. What measures did the Marathas undertake for the safety and security of the Markets or Peths ? 4. Explain the major highways used to carry the trade and commerce under the Marathas. 5. What were the major means and modes of transport and communication ? munotes.in

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239 6. What were the measures the Marathas used for security of trade in transition? 7. Explain the problems in water route Transport and Communication. 8. Explain passport as a safety measure in the transport and communication. 9. Discuss the Ghatmarg transport and communication under the Marathas. 18. 11. SUMMARY Trade involves the sale, transfer and exchange of goods. It covers buying and selling activities of good. Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services. The exchange of goods may take place between two or more than two parties. Under the Marathas , the trade was very simple ,it was carried out in the form of barter system i. e. exchange of goods for goods only. They were not profit making but socio-economic activities , helped live in a better way . Under the Marathas trade of various types was carried out. Commerce during the period dealt with movement of goods from its place of production to the place of consumption, without any major risk. There were a number of articles traded or exchanged for articles only. They were food grains, fruits, edibles, spices, clothes and cloth pieces, animals, miscellaneous articles and slaves. These commodities were sold or purchased in the markets of Villages as well as towns. Every village had weekly market, in which not the above commodities from within the Kingdom but also foreign articles were brought and sold. Sete- Mahajan was the official appointed by the Government to look after the Law and order of the market or Peth. He in return was empowered to recover some sanctioned fees from the traders and merchants. He also collected octroi from the traders assembled there. There was the responsibility of the Government to develop one of the places as market or Peth. Shivaji had developed a market at Pasan in the name of his mother Jijabai It was seen that whether the place was secure or came in the range of attack of the enemy, i.e. the security of the place was given the first priority while developing the market. During this period, there were several highways for transport and communication. They were 1. Poona to Agra, 2. Panvel to Mumbai through Kalyan 3. Poona to Shrirangapattam 4. Poona to Baganagar 5. Poona to Konkan 6. Poona to Nasik 7. Poona to Kolhapur 8.Poona to Satara. 9. Poona to Aurangabad 10. Poona to Nagpur 11. Poona to Dharur 12. Kalyan to Aurangabad 13. Poona to Solapur. Along with these highways, there were some routes connected important towns for internal trade and commerce. It is said that Radhabai's pilgrimage to Mathura and Saraswatibai's pilgrimage to Kashi created munotes.in

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240 new routes for trade and commerce. During this period means of transportation were bullocks, buffaloes, camels, elephants, palanquins, bullock carts and Labourers. The Marathas had taken several precautions for safety and security of trade and commerce. As Land routes there were water-routes also. Almost all ports in Konkan had linked each other for the purpose of trade and commerce. They were Kalyan, Nagothana, Rajapur, Alibag and Bassein. The Marathas had considerable dangers in the trade of land routes as well as water routes, as attacks, robbery and piracy which occurred daily. In the same way wars like Ango- Maratha wars created several problems in the trade and commerce. Under the Marathas, idea of passport also was executed. The rulers sold passes or licenses to enter their territory either for trade or travel. Mostly, the foreign travellers of England, France, Dutch, Portugal used them extensively. There was a trade through Ghatmarg. Because Sahyadri ranges spread through the western part of the Maratha Kingdom, which a numerable passes connected Deccan and Konkan area. Ghatpandes were appointed by the Marathas to look after the chowkies established to supervise the trade through Ghatmarg. He was also authorised to recover some toll for protection and escorting the traders through the Ghats. Thus, the Marathas had trade and Commerce under them. 18.12. QUESTIONS 1. Examine the articles of trade and commerce during the period of Marathas. 2. Give an account of markets under the Marathas. 3. Assess the Transport and Communication system during the period of Marathas. 4. Discuss the water route transport and communication under the Marathas. 5. Explain the major problems in trade and commerce during the period of Marathas. 18.13. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Dr. Hove, Tours for Scientific and Economic Research made in Kathewar, Gujarath and Koknan. 2. C.V. Aitchision, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads. 3. Alaskar S.V., Angrekalin Patravyavahar. 4. Springer’s History of the Marathas, translation by Prof. R.N. Chapekar. munotes.in

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245 English, the erstwhile Vijayanagar empire, and Persia was in circulation. Among such currency the important coins like Sivraihon, Fanam, Cakram, Padshahi-hon, Nishani hon, laris, Rupees, Asrafi, Takas, Chhatrapati or Sivrai, Sajgani, Tiruka, Ruka, Paisa, Dam, Adka, caval, Jital, Duval, Pal and Byal were used in transaction. Even cowries were also treated as currency for small dealings. Almost all these coins were not minted under the Marathas but they were in circulation. Minting coins was not the responsibility of the Government. It was the responsibility of individual, who had secured the license for minting them. Even the individual or the private person i.e. the license holder was responsible for the metallic content in the coin and its deformity or abrasion. The coins which were deformed or worn off were exchanged for new coins, The market value of the currency or coins depended on the metallic content of the coin. It is said that the old coin of the same weight and metallic content usually used to fetch lower value then the new coin. There were several factors responsible for variation as under:- 1. Tavernier in his travel account says that the difference in old and the new coins was not due to variation in weight, fineness or outer look of the coin but it was due to the ulterior intension of the banker, who usually paid a great sum to the king in order to oblige him. This sum, the banker recovered from the common people at the time of exchanging coins. Even Dr. Joshi confirms this fact in his book, the coins current in the kingdom of Golkonda. 2. There is a different justification in the fifth volume of the June, 1943's Journal of Numismatics Society of India that the bankers of that period were very superstitious. They thought that some misfortune would be fall if the old coins were melted regularly. They, therefore, kept this artificial difference in the value of the old and the coins which ranged from fourteen to seventy percent. 3. The third reason given was that, the Shroff and Potdar were responsible for this variation because they were examiners of coins appointed by the government. They only advised the bankers and merchants to receive currency from the people. The Shroffs and Potdars received fees for the same. Naturally, bankers kept variation in the value of old & new coins. 3. Classification of Currency:- Abbot states that during the Maratha period the principle of one mint one coin was not maintained. There were several mints, granted to the individuals on the basis of license and several other conditions. Naturally, there was no central mint to supervise the process of minting coins. Although, there was diversity in the number of coins but there was unity in the design of the coins. Hence, for the convenience of study, The currency of the Maratha period can be classified as under:- 1. Gold coins or currency 2. Silver coins or currency 3. Copper coins or currency. munotes.in

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246 1. Gold Coins or Currency:- The Factory Records, Travellers Accounts, Contemporary Records and Sabhasad Bakhar, give a variety of Gold currency or coins, which were in circulation during that period. On the basis of the above records, the gold coins can be divided into the following categories 1. Gambar 2. Mohor 3. Putli 4. Hons. They are delt in detail as under:- 1.1. Gambar:- Although, it was difficult to differentiate all the gold coins from one another. There was variation in their weight and metallic content as well as they were struck at various places by various private mints and there was no uniform rule to mint them. The private mint holders were sanctioned licenses on the condition that they should pay the state Government certain coins as negotiated in their license. Abbot says that license was granted to the private persons to mint coins according to the rules prescribed by the Government, even then variation occurred and the difficulty cropped up in the identification of coins. S. N. Sen says that Gambar was a gold coin bigger in size than all other gold coins. It was also called Gubbur and was worth to Rs. 3-12-6. Gambar was mostly enjoyed wide circulation in south India. Except this, there is no detail account available of Gambar currency. 1.2. Mohor:- This was another gold coin and a piece of bullion in circulation. In 1663, the value of this coin was around Rs.13. There not and Careri say that Mohor was a gold rupee and was not commonly used in trade and commerce because it was used mainly for making presents to the king and other honourable persons. Bhave says that there were saveran Mohors in circulation as Ahmedabadi, Puneri, Aurangabadi, Shetshahi, Talegavi, Burhanpuri, Ahmad Shahi, Surati, Banarsikura, Jyahanbadi, Machhli Bunder, Delhi, Patani and Lahori. Chapekar says that in addition to the above Mohors, there are Mohors mentioned in the records of Tulshibagwale, Khasgiwale, Chiplunkar and Vaidya as, Panchemje, Ganjikot, Vajrajogani, Laturi, Ajmeri and Darshani. Some of these mohors were named after the place where they were minted. Bhave further says that mohors differed in size and value from Rs Thirteen to fifteen. Generally, the standard mohor was one tola in weight whereas the mohor minted at Dharwar mint was of three fourth tola because the government desired so and wanted to amass gold for other coins. 1.3. Hon:- This was one more gold coin in the circulation. Hon is the corruption of Honnu, a Kannada word for temple. Sabhasad says that there were several hons during the period of Marathas as Sangari, Sivrai, Padsai, Devrai, Achyutrai, Ramchandrarai, Satlami, Ibrahimi, Nishani, Tipaki, Guti, Dharwari, Kaveripak, Candavari, Vingurali, Vellori, Advani, Devanhali, Venkatrai, Trisuli, Bildhari, Ulphakari, Jadmal, Tadpatri, Afraji, Bivaluri, Pavanaiki, Gold bars, Fanam and Cakram. Sivrai, Achutrai and Devrai, the Vijaynagar rulers, struck these hons in their names as per the prevailing customs of that period. Bhave says that hons like Kaveripak, Sangari, Guti, Dharwari, munotes.in

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247 Advani, Chanvari, Veluri, Ramnathpuri, Hydrabadi, Harpanhati, Vyankatapati, Durgi, Sawanpuri, Nagarpatani and Tadpatri were named after the town or place where they were minted. Bhave furthe says that most of the hons were minted in the Southern part of India and they were perhaps the coins of the Dravidian people. There were some other hons like Nishani hons which were neither named after the ruler nor after the place where they were minted. Manucci says that pagoda was a gold coin and was the European version of hon. It was equivalent to drachm Greek coin in weight and size. It was small, circular and stamped a deity on one side. Tavernier says that pagoda coin was a small thick piece of gold, the English and the Dutch struck it with the permission of the king. The Journal of Numismatics society says that pagoda coin was originally Hindu coin, which was called Varaha from the picture engraved on it. The Chalukyas and the Vijayanagar rulers struck the coin in the commemoration of ten incarnations of god Vishnu. It is said that some of the south Indian hons had the image of temple incised on them, which led the Europeans to call it pagoda. The value of these hons varied considerably between Rs. three and Rupees four. Sabhasad says that the gold coin Shivrai hon was associated with the name of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who had around four lakhs Shivrai hons in his exchequer or treasury. Dr. D. V. Kale, G.H. Khare and Chinchwad Monastery confirm that a gold coin bearing Shri Raja Siva on one side and Chhatrapati on the other side was in circulation of seventeenth century Maharashtra. Dr. Fryer says that gold coin like Sangri, Joulky, Asmeloh, Tipki and Ibrahimi were found in the coast at towns of West India and Persia. The Journal of Numismatics of India mentions that Padshahi and Muhammadshahi honswere struck by the Bijapur ruler Muhammadshah in his name and they were in transaction before the Deccan Campaign of Aurangzeb. G. H. Khare says that Padshahi and Muhmmadshahi hons were equal in weight as well as around equal to Alamgiri rupees four. G. H. Khare further refers to Nishani, Katerai and Hukeri hons. Nishani hon was minted at Vengurla mint, which was closed due to the campaign of Aurangzeb after the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji. But after sometime the Sardeshmukh extended protection to the licensee and the mint began to function as earlier. Katerai and Hukeri were minted in the Mysore state. Katerai had the figure of trident on it and therefore was called Trishul Hon-while Hukeri hon was minted at Hukeri a taluka of Belgam district, Mysore state. The exchange value of hons varied as its numbers and because of its intrinsic metallic content and its minting at various places. Manucci gives its exchange value to Rs. three caveri raised it to Rs. four, Guarda and Thevenot say that hon was equivalent to Rs. five whereas English factors converted the exchange value of Sangri and Tipki pagodas or hons into Shillings and pence. In short, the exchange value of hons differed between two and half rupees and three and three fourth rupees. munotes.in

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248 There were two more gold coins, which are referred in several records and historians are not unanimous on the exchange value of them. Such coins were Famam and Cakrams Abbe Carre valued fanom to three pence, whereas Dr. Fryer equated it to one and one fourth rupee. S. N. Joshi says that Fanam and Cakram were in circulation in 1695 while Rajyavyavaharakosh categorized it as a silver coin. The Journal of Numismatics of India says that, although the currency could bear the legend Chhatrapati in absence of any evidence it cannot be said that Chhatrapati Shivaji minted the Fanam and Cakrams. They could be minted either by Chhatrapati Sambhaji or Rajaram. Thus, these and many other gold coins were in force during the period of Marathas. 1.4. Putli Currency:- There was one more gold coin current under the Marathas, which came to be known as Putali. It was usually used as ornament by ladies in wealthy families and it valued around silver rupees four. The Journal of Numismatics Society of India says that Putali, a gold coin was in force in 1764-65, it valued only Rs Seventeen. But this currency did not remain in circulation for along time. G.H. Khare says that during the period of Peshwas, there was a gold coin incised Shri Ganpati on one side and Shri Pantpradhan on the other side and valued around thirty three grains. Thus, these currencies in gold used for transaction under the Marathas. 2. Silver Currency:- As gold currency, there was also a silver currency under the Marathas. Among them, Shahajahani, Alamgiri, Abbasi, Muhamudi and many other coins were in transaction. It is said that current coins came to be known as Calni whereas the old, debased and worn-out coins come to be know as Khazana. The Calni coins were rated more than the Khazana coins. Khazana means a treasure, old coins being worn out and reduced its metallic content in some proportion, therefore they were supposed to be taken out of circulation and deposited in the treasury. This fact led to these debased and old coins to be called Kazana. The transaction value or the exchange value between the Calni and Khazana was as one hundred Calnis were equal to one hundred Khazana, twelve takas and twenty five dams. Classification of Silver currency:- Although, there were several Silver coins, they can be categorized as follow for the convenience of the study:- 1. Rupees 2. Laris 3. Takas. 2.1. Rupees: - Generally, the Silver rupee was minted in the Northern part of India whereas the gold coin was struck in the southern part of the country. The rupee was a big and heavy coin, which weighed around one tola or one hundred eighty grains. The Muslim rulers used to strike this currency on the eve of each Hijra or Julus, the calendar years of those rulers. On each issue of the new rupee, it was rated one paisa more than the old rupee, this could be due to the constant use and abrasion of the old coin. Some of the rupees stricken by various rulers at various places on various occasions were as under:- munotes.in

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249 2.1.a. Asrafi Rupee:- Sabhasad says that Asrafi or Asarfadi was originally a gold coin, but the Portuguese adopted it and converted it into silver coin as well as began to mint it at Goa. Naturally, the Marathas began to strike it in silver. Its exchange value was as one Asarfadi was equivalent to 1.4 xerafins, the Portuguese coins minted at Goa. 2.1.b. Abasi Rupee:- This was a Persian coin, it was striker by the Persian king, Shah Abbas II and used in trade and commerce. It was found in abundant quantity in trading centers of Western India like Surat, Mumbai and Konkan area. Dr. Fryer and other foreign travellers confirmed its existence in circulation as well as they valued this rupee between sixteen and eighteen pence! 2.1.c.Mahmudi Rupee:- This was one more silver coin, which was struck by Mahamud Shah, the sultan of Gujrat. Dr. Fryer says that a coin called Mahmudi was also current in Persia. The English factory records of 1659 say that the exchange value of one thousand sangri pagodas was equivalent to seven thousand eight hundred twenty five Mahmudi rupees. It is said that the English factors converted the pagodas first into rupee at the rate of three and half rupees per pagoda and then they calculated in rupees at the rate of two and one fourth Mahmudi per rupee. Thus, this rupee was inexistence in Persia and Gujrat at the same time. In addition to these Chapekar has given a long list of silver coins as Rahimatpuri, Malkapuri, Chandwadi, Mirji, Arkat, Chinchwadi, Hukeri, Bagalkot, Gajapuri, Talegawi, Surati, Bharochi, Panhali, Chatarsingi, Nilkanthi, Saroli, Bahuti, Arkot, Gunjikot, Daulatabadi, Belapuri, Barodi, Bhatwadi, Itawa, Bawadi, Panoli, Ankushi, Ekbanduki, Trishuli, Farashi, Nagtura, Panchmel, Mite, Potechal, Basseinchal, Kalyanchal, Wasikka, Ballisikka, Kashisika, Srisikka, Shahusikka, Delhisikka, Atiche, Bhunde, Alamgiri, Malharshali, Pethechalani, Bajarchalani, Kokanchalani, Sarkarchalini, Danechalini, punechalini and Hapischalini. Out of these coins Rahimatpuri, Malkapuri, Belapuri, Daulatabadi, Chandanwadi, Bagatkoti and Surati were named after the places where they were minted whereas Farshi, Tura and Trishuli were named after the pictures engraved on them. Although, there was variation in weight, type, style and purity of the metallic content in coins, the government tried to adjust and compensate at the time of exchange of coins, The Peshwas' had issued instruction in this regard for the benefit of people. 2.2. Lari currency: - This was another silver currency made of silver wire, like a hairpin of ladies. It was made of a thick silver wire and its length was upto three inches, it was double in the middle and flattened to be stamped on it. Its weight was around seventy two grains but the size and length differed from lari to lari. Originally, this was a Persian coin was named after the province Lar, which located at the head of the Persian Gulf and was a very popular trading centre for centuries together. Naturally, the Persian merchants and traders brought it to India. Due to its viability, the Indian people approved and accepted it, hence, the rulers of Bijapur began to mint it and consequently, Lari came into transaction in the Kokan area. Mandelson says that the munotes.in

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250 great demand of Lari in the Konkan region led the Bijapur Sultan to mint it at various places; Mandelson further says that the exchange value of lari with pagoda was as one pagoda was equivalent to Ten Dabhol laris. Dr. Fryer gave the exchange value of the same lari at Rajapur of one pagoda to around ten and half laris after the gap of thirty five years. Different kinds of laris:- Sabhasad, factory records, contemporary documents, the Portuguese and the Mughal documents confirm that Lari was in circulation under the Marathas. Hence, there were many kinds of laris, which can be categorised as under:- 1. Basra lari 2. Dabholi Lari 3. Cauli Lari 4. Hurmuzi Lari. These names of the laris suggest that they were named after the places or towns where they were minted. Dr.Balkrishna says that Chhatrapati Shivaji minted the Caul and Dabholi Laris when he conquered Dabhol in 1661 and Caul in 1670. Dr. Balkrishna further says that there was one more lari came to be known as Sirni Lari. But it seems that Sirni was a certain Fee, that was paid by a person willingly to the government, when he won his case in the long standing dispute. 2.3. Taka currency:- One more silver coin known as taka was in circulation under the Marathas. There were some confusions about this coin as one school of thought says that Taka was merely a money of account whereas the second school of thought says that it was a copper coin; even the Rajyavyavahara Kosh called Taka as Khurda mean a copper coin. But the available evidences says that Taka was a silver coin because its exchange value proved it as one gold hon was equivalent to twelve Takas where as one Taka was equivalent to forty-eight rukas, the smallest copper coins. The third evidence says that the exchange value of Taka varied in relation to one hon from ten and half to thirteen Takas. Naturally, Taka was a silver coin current under the Marathas. Moreover, all coins of the Mughals and the European companies were in circulation during this period. 3.3. Copper currency:- During the period of Marathas copper coins also were in circulation. Among them the coins like Shivrai or Chhatrapati, Sajgani, Tiruka, Paisa, Ruka, Dam, Adka, Jital, Budgrooks and cowris were more familiar to the people. Abbot says that all copper coins were of certain denominations. The metal required for striking these coins was supplied by the East India Company, and he himself assessed such twenty five thousand copper coins and found them minted as per the prescribed norms of the government. Different kinds of copper currency:- These coins were numerous, they differed from each other in size and weight slightly, due to their minting at various places by various rulers. Even then for the convenience of study, the copper coins can be categorised as 1. Paisa. 2. Shivrai or Chhatrapati 3. Ruka. 3.3.1. Paisa:- The copper coin paisa minted under Chhatrapati Shivaji bore the legend Sri Raja Siva on one side and Chhatrapati on other side. Abbot says that these copper coins had some pictures munotes.in

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251 incised on them as Sun, arrow, flower, sword, Moon, leaves of Bel tree, planets and the signs of Zodiac. These coins varied in weight as one fourth tola, three fourth tola and the other one tola of copper. Generally, paisa weighed one tola of copper, even this was minted by Muslim and the Mughal rulers. Dr. Fryer says paisa was a copper coin, was in circulation among the poor people and the exchange value in relation to Mahmudi a silver rupee varied from twelve to twenty-four paisa. Thevenot observed the exchange value as one rupee equated to fifty five paisa, Tavernier says it was forty six to fifty six paisa to a rupee, whereas Carre says one rupee was equivalent to fifty four paisa. 3.3.2. Sivrai or Chhatrapati:- The title of the coin suggests that this coin was minted during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and was circulated in the kingdom. The weight of this copper coin was around three fourth tola. But Ranade says that there was no coin minted below Sivrai of ten masas under the Marathas. They used cowries for smaller transactions. As a matter of fact, there are several evidences that they prove that there were many smaller coins like ruka, adka, Duval, caval and bugrook in the circulation under the Marathas. Some other evidences show that the exchange value of one Shivrai was to six rukas. 3.3.3. Ruka:-This was one more copper coin current under the Marathas. Ruka weighed around one fourth tola. The exchange value of Ruka with Taka, a silver coin was around forty-eight rukas. It is said that under the Marathas land was expressed in Takas and Rukas as three Ruka camber land, six ruka Sindia's land and three ruka cashew nut garden. In short, Ruka was a coin generally used in the transaction of Marathas. Thus, these and many other even smaller copper coins and cowries also were current during the period of Marathas. 19.2 MINTS UNDER THE MARATHAS The Marathas had issued license to private person or individuals to mint currency as per the directions, norms and conditions of the government. The norms were as to maintain the purity of the metallic content, pay certain amount to the government and not to mint the coins which were not allowed to mint or contracted to somebody else. Bhave says that the mints licensed and working during the period of Marathas were at 1. Poona, 2. Chinchwad 3. Talegaon 4. Bassein 5. Nagothana 6. Chandwad 7. Nasik 8. Daulatabad 9. Rahimatpur 10. Dharwad 11. Satara and 12. Panhala. A document of 1766 says Pandurang Murar, a goldsmith was granted a license to mint coins on the condition on that he should pay the government six coins per thousand coins and one mohor per thousand mohors minted. The Journal of Numismatic of India says that the fees of six coins was raised to seven later, the seventh coin was to be paid to the manager, who was looking after the functioning of the mint. A document of 1748-49 refers to the license granted to Prahlad Shet Kasar of fort Mahuli to mint Shivrai coin of ten masas each. In the same way, Balaji Bapuji of Kasba Nagothana was granted license to mint a coin of ten masas each and he was warned munotes.in

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252 that he would be punished in case he failed to observe the norms fixed by the government. It is said that king Shahu had ordered to open mints at Satara and Panhala. the Peshwa Bajirao granted permission to Savarkars to open a mint at Bassein in 1739. A document of 1790 says that the government ordered to Dulabhai Govindji Sheth, the owner of one of the mints to convert the mohor into the hons of Ekeri sikka. The mohor was received to the Peshwa from Tipu Sultan and it was damaged in some proportion. In the same way the Peshwa had ordered to close down the mints at Dharwar and Chandwad because those mints had issued the counterfeit coins. Thus, the mints under the Marathas began to function as per the norms fixed by the government. 19.3. BANKING The main functions of the bank today have been 1. Accepting deposits and 2. Advancing loan to customer in a systematic way. But such banks were not there. The work, of todays bank is, was done by some indigenous bankers, or sahukars who came to be known as Sete Mahajan, Deskulkarni, Deshpande and Deshmukh. The bank mechanism, which is working today, that, was not so. But the work of bank was carried on with the same rules and regulations of medieval age. 1. Loan Agreement:- The agreement for loan accepted by the parties was called variously as karjarokha, karja Khatba, Kharjakhat and Karjapatra. In this document, the following details used to be entered:- 1.1. The name of the creditor i.e. Dhanko. 1.2. The name of the debtor i.e. Rinko 1.3. Principal or the Loan amount. 1.4. The rate of interest agreed. It was fixed for the month if the loan was secured against some pledge the rate was fifteen percent and sixty percent if it was unsecured loan. The rate of interest was less to the Brahmin than the other category people. The interest was charged in rupees if the loan was in rupees, it was in kind if the loan was in kind and the interest was in hon if loan was in hons. It is said that the position of debtor, whether he was solvent was assessed. While charging the interest, the nature of loan was also considered. The longer the period, the higher the rate of interest as a Deshmukh took a loan at four percent to fight for his Patilki watan, while another Deshmukh borrowed sixteen hundred rupees at five percent per month for five years. In some cases Mirasi rights were given in lieu of interest on the loan the person had borrowed, this is the case of a Kulkarni, who had borrowed one hundred fifty hons for the period of six years on the condition of paying twenty five hons every year and he assigned his half Kulkarni watan to the creditor. Thus, the rate of interest depended on many factors and varied case to case. munotes.in

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253 1.5. The purpose of loan. The loan was taken to serve many purposes as 1. Meeting the expenses of litigations of watan, 2. Maintenance during the period of distress, famine, droughts and other calamities 3. To pay ransom to the attacker as Siddi Khan or any invader. It is said that, there is no reference regarding the commercial loan. 1.6. The period for which the loan was taken, i.e. duration or the period of loan depended on the nature of loan. The minimum period was at least a month and maximum up to ten years or more than that. If the loan was taken for agricultural purpose the debtor was to repay it with the interest on the new year day and when the loan was taken for litigation, the period was any number of years agreed by both the parties. 1.7. Penalties, If the loan amount was not returned within the stipulated time. There were a number of penalties, which were very severe as 1. The debtor was forced to pay the double amount of his loan 2. The payment of loan was considered as a moral responsibility of the debtor otherwise believed that it incurred sin in the future of the debtor. 3. The failure of repayment of loan was equated to hienous sins like killing a cow, murdering a Brahmin from Varanasi and having illicit relations with his own mother. 1.8. Sureties:-Many a times the loan was given not to the debtor directly but through the surety. In such cases the names of sureties should be entered in to the agreement of loan, which depended loan to loan. 1.9. Signatures of witnesses:-It is said that there was no Karjapatra or loan agreement was complete unless it had autographs of witnesses. The number of witnesses depended on the nature of loan agreement and the property involved in the loan agreement. Generally, witnesses from two to nine were needed, for ordinary loan agreement like Patil, Pande or Kulkarni or any persons from the village acted as witnesses. If watan or Miras was involved in the loan agreement then the concern persons like Deshmukh, Desh kulkarni, Sete, Mahajan and several others were needed to be witnesses for the deed. 1.10. The last entry in the Karjapatra was that the debtor was to specify whether he has taken the loan on his own for his work and not under duress or force of somebody. Thus, the loan agreement was complete and had legal standing to such agreement in the court. 19.4 STATE LOAN There is no evidence except one as well as sufficient information that the government advanced any loan to the people for promoting agriculture or helping artisans and professionals in the kingdom. The only evidence regarding the loan to farmers is that a circular, which Chhatrapati Shivaji had issued in the name of Prabhavati Subhedar in the Konkan region that, the king had plans to advance loans to the farmers without charging any interest. The loan came to be known as taqai loan and was to be used for purchasing equipment and maintenance during the period of distress. It is said that the king had ordered the officers not to munotes.in

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254 recover and additional amount in the form of interest but only the principal amount and that also with easy installments. There are several stray references regarding the state loan to the people on low rate of interest and some time without interest it was advanced. It is said that there is no sufficient evidence regarding the security provided by the government to the creditor or Dhanko and debtor or Runko in the procedural matters. 19.5. VARAT This was one of the functions of bank under the Marathas. Varat was an order issued by the king to various treasuries for payment. Sabhasad Bakhar says that Chhatrapati Shivaji used to pay his officials like Sarnobats, Majumdars, Karkuns and other employees at various places by way of varat, which was ordered to the local treasuries. Sabhasad further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji had purchased some goods from Samuel Austin, a British factor and paid him through varat. Shivaji granted him a varat on the treasuries in Kalyan and Bhiwandi for his payment. It is also observed that the money or payment received through the varat was always delayed by one or two years. The person or party accepting the varat was fully aware about the modality of this payment. Even he used to charge for this procedural matters. Whenever the Marathas issued varats on the English factors were often paid through the silver currency. which the people or the officials treated as uncertain money. Even then the idea of varat or hundi proved useful and began to be used increasingly, which brought up a new class, came to be known as brokers. This class encouraged the business of varat or hundies , which they used differently as Joghundi , Lahanehundi , Dhanijoghundi and Shahjoghundi . Chapekar says that these hundies were used by rich people and the sardars or nobles. Bhave says that hundies or varat was paid to the person as per his convenience. The bankers or the treasuries who honoured and paid the amount to the varat or hundi holder charged interest ranging from two to five percent. Some of the varats were not charged any interest due to the consideration of the position of the person holding it. Prof. Chapekar says that the varat or hundi business flourished considerably during the period of Peshwas , had the rule of Peshwas lasted little longer, the city of Poona would have been popular more than London for the business of varat or hundi. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:- 1. What are the various sources of information currency and Banking of Marathas? 2. Explain in brief the classification of currency under the Marathas. 3. What were the different gold coins prevalent during the period of Marathas? munotes.in

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255 4. Assess the various kinds of hons and pagodas circulated as currency under the Marathas. 5. Analyse the classifications of silver currency during the period of Marathas. 6. Bring out different rupees minted at various places under the Marathas. 7. What were the different copper coins under the Marathas? 8. Explain the working of mints during this period. 9. How was the banking system during this period? what work did the bankers undertake? 10. Give an account of state loans advanced during this period. 11. Explain the functionality of varat or Hundi under the Marathas. 19.6. SUMMARY During the Maratha rule , along with the Maratha currency , the currency of all other rulers like the Mughals , Bijapur , Golkonda , Portuguese , English , Persian & the Vijayanagar was in circulation . Among the currency, the coins like Shivrai , Fanam , Cakram, Padshahi , Nishani , Hons , Rupees , Laris , Ruka , Tiruka and even Kowris were noteworthy . Almost all these coins were not minted under the Marathas. They were minted at various places and centres , therefore some of them could bear the names of places where they were minted. Some of them were minted in the name of rulers and some could bear the name of the picture incised on them. It is said that when the worn out coin was replaced by a new coin, then the old had lesser value than the new coin . Some foreigner attached some blind faith or superstition that some misfortune would fall if the old coins melted into new. But the reality was that the exchangers like Shroff and Potdars were to pay some substantial amount to the king annually. The same was recovered from the people by keeping little difference in the old and the new coins of same denomination and same weight. The currency of that period was classified into Gold , Silver and Copper coins .The Gold coins were again divided as Gambar, Mohor, Hon and Putli. S.N. Sen says that Gambar was a gold coin called Gubur. Mohor was widely accepted and used to be presented to the men of honour as gift. Among the mohors, Ahmedabadi, Puneri, Aurangabadi, Talegavi, Burhanpuri, Ahmadshahi and Surati were very popular. The Vaidya records, Tulshibagwale and Khasgivale have long lists of mohor current under the Marathas. Hon was a gold coin, it was a corruption of the Kanada word honu means temple. Sabhasad also has a long list of hons in circulation under the Marathas. Putli was one more gold coin, which was generally used as ornament by ladies in villages and towns a like. munotes.in

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256 Among the silver coins, Rupee, Lari and Taka were widely circulated and transacted by the people under the Marathas. Sabhasad mentions Asrafi, Abbasi and Mahmudi rupees also were in circulation. The next silver coin was lari, named after the Lar province of Persia. Naturally, this coin was basically from Persia and it was brought to India by traders and merchants, When it was accepted by Indians, the ruler of Bijapur began to mint it. Taka was also a silver coin, some people confused it with a copper coin Khurda. But it was a silver coin and minted at various places. Along with the gold and silver coins , there were a number of copper coins in the circulation . Among them paisa, sivrai , Chhatrapati , ruka , tiruka , duvai ,bayal and caval were in the transaction during this period. This was the currency of common people , because the gold and silver was beyond their capacity and most of them had even not seen those coins. The mints minting those coins were located at Poona , Chinchwad, Chandwad , Talegaon , Bassein , Nagothana , Dharwar ,Satara , Nasik , Daulatabad and Panhala. Banks under the Marathas were not there in modern sense, there were only sahukar or money lenders who were known as bankers, the main and major work, they performed was accepting deposits and advancing loans on the agreement, which was called as karjapatra or loon agreement. The loan was accepted and granted to any individual on certain conditions, which were noted down in the loan agreement. There is no evidence of commercial loan except few incidents. The Government granted loan to cultivators for agricultural development. The bankers had practiced the varat or hundi system, with order of the king on treasury for payment of his employees and high ranking officials. 19.7. QUESTIONS 1. Give an account of currency prevalent under the Marathas. 2. Assess the gold currency in circulation during the period of the Marathas . 3. Explain the silver and copper coins minted during the period of Marathas. 4. Examine the banking system working under the Marathas.How far was the varat system useful for the payments of officials ? 19.8. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Hodiwala, Historical studies in Mughal Numismatics. 2. Maity S.K. , The Economic life of Northern India . 3. Dewell K.K. and Varma , Introductory Economics and Elementary Theories. 4. Kulkarni G.T. , Banking in the Eighteenth Century. munotes.in

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255 were outside of Maharashtra, they ruled Maharashtra from Badami and Kalyani respectively which belonged to Karnataka. There were the dynasties which were from this land and ruled Maharashtra were Shilaharas and the Yadavas. The Shilaharas constructed several temples but very few are intact now whereas the Yadvas of Deogiri could not rule Maharashtra for a long time. The land of Maharashtra is known for its Sahyadri ranges and the beautiful caves carved in various parts of that mountain. The caves at Karley, Bhajye, Kanheri, Ajanta, Verul and Nasik are very popular and world renowned sculptures. Although, the Marathas had their distinctive style of painting and construction of beautiful mansions which cannot be compared with the Mughals in the north. Their temples, forts and mansion became and remained regional and provincial in scope and style for which several factors were responsible as under: - The Royal period was the formative period of the Maratha rule. It was not possible to expect much more in the field of art and architecture from them. Even then the significant contribution was made in the construction of forts of military architecture. However, the untimely death of Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Raj, followed the series of wars with the Mughals came to be known as the Maratha war of independence in which the very existence of Maratha kingdom came into danger. Naturally, there was no much time for any art and architecture. The Peshwas followed the policy of expansion, which lasted for forty years from 1720 to 1761. The setbacks like the third battle of Panipat led the Marathas towards its downward slide, which gave the Marathas no time for exquisite art and architecture. The economic position of the Marathas was not as strong as the Mughals in the north. The land in Maharashtra is not as fertile as the Gangetic basin. Naturally, it did not allow them to spend much more on art and architecture. During the period of Peshwas the incessant wars for territorial expansion negated the economic gains accrued from the annexation. The economic grains from the territories other than Maharashtra were uncertain, that led Peshwas to borrow large amounts from bankers to pay regular administrative expenses and to finance various wars. Although, there was some collection from the conquered rulers but it was very marginal, that was absorbed by major feudatory agents and did not reach to the Government. On the other hand, Maharashtra never used to produce a large surplus as was done by the Vijayanagar or the Mughal Empire. Naturally, the Marathas could not spend much amount on the art and architecture. 20.2 MARATHA ART During the period of Marathas, a distinct style of painting as an art was developed. There were several painters, who excelled in various aspects of that painting. There were rich people as Sardars and officials of munotes.in

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256 Peshwas, who became patrons of such paintings and painters in the eighteenth-century Poona. This was the direct consequence of the expansion of Maratha territories in the country. During this period, a number of frescos and mural painting appeared on the wall of mansions and wadas of rich people in Poona and Satara. It became a matter of status to have painted walls of their buildings with various episodes of Puranic and epic ages. The Peshwas had employed popular painters Like Ragho, Tanaji and Anuprao for mural painting on the wall of Shanvar wada, which was constructed by Bajirao I. Mahadevrao I completed the remaining construction of the Wada and employed Mankoji and Shivram popular painters of the period on Rs thirty for one and half month to paint variously the Shamvarwada. In 1765, Peshwa Raghunathrao had constructed a wada at Anandwalli and instructed Nana Fadnis to Send Mankoji for decoration of his wada. Apart from the actual painting administrated by the various painters, the Peshwas also acquired several master pieces of paintings from different parts of India. Among them the thirty-six Ragmalas, which were brought by Mahadevrao I in 1764, a copy of an illustrated Bhagwat brought by Nana Phadnis from Jaipur and the gift pieces given by the English were exquisite pieces of art forms. When Charles Malet was the English resident at the Court of Poona, he employed James Wells and Daniel the popular English artists to do some outstanding painting on the wall of Shanvarwada. They also trained some local painters in the painting of nature in various moods and majesty. Among Local painters who were trained were Gangaram Tambat, Dhanaji and Bapu Chitary. They became excellent artists of the Peshwa period. The Sardars Like Khasgiwale, Raste, Tulgibagwale and Vaidya used their services to do various paintings on walls of their wadas. The paintings which James Wells had done in Poona were outstanding. In one of the paintings Nana Fadnis, Mahadji Shinde and Mahadevrao II were sitting together. In the second painting Mahadevrao II and Nana Fadnis were shown as discussing important matters of the government of Marathas. 1. Maratha Frescoes: - This type of painting was done on the walls and inner part of the roof of the building. The frescoes and wall painting being very popular, were done on the religious occasions like Dasara, Diwali, Upanayana or marriage ceremony by the expert and renowned painters or artists. Generally, the subjects or events depicted in these wall paintings were religious and taken from mythological literature like, 1. Dashavatara i.e. the ten incarnations of lord Vishnu, was the most popular during this period. Chhatrapati Shahu's palace at Satara and Raste's wada at Wai were painted with this painting beautifully and became the attraction of all the people in the kingdom. 2. Ganpati was also a favourite object of paintings on the walls of main halls and drawing rooms of each building in Poona. 3. Rampanchayat, among the paintings of gods and goddess, Rampanchayat was painted with much priority. In this painting Rama, Sita, Laxman, hanuman, Shankar, Parvati, Lord Vishnu and Laxmi were shown sitting in the panchayat. 4. The Jain temple at Jamod; had a painting depicting the whole life of Mahavira. In the same was the temple at Bijargaon had some another painting but was not so popular as Jamod munotes.in

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257 temple. 5. There were several wall paintings based on the events of epics like Draupadi Swayamvara, Sita Swayamvara. 6. The wadas at Wai, Nipani, Chandwad, Talegao and Dabhade had wall paintings of all events based on various puranas. 7. It is said that in several wall painting the subject handled in Ajanta and Ellora cave paintings have also been kept in mind and efforts were made to establish the linkage with that tradition. 8. The wall paintings or Maratha frescoes were done in white, red, Green and Blue colours with suitable combinations suiting to the buildings or wadas as well as with the objects. It appears that while painting various subjects the care was taken about the attire of male and female which was shown typically Maratha in style, as nine-yard-long sarees, dhotis and turbans. The physical features of the objects depicted resembled with that of the statures of Marathas. Thus, the wall paintings or frescoes developed during this period was practiced in various parts of the kingdom. 2. Roll Paintings and Patrika: - This painting was done on paper roll which was about ten to twelve feet long. Generally, it was the horoscope along with the Zodiacal signs and other objects of religious importance. The roll painting of Peshwa Balaji Bajirao is available today with the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhan Mandal, Poona. The Patrica painting one more popular form can be discussed as under:- 3. Sankrant pat Patrika: - This painting was done on a two square feet size paper. In the upper part of the paper the picture of Ganpati was painted along the pictures of goddess Sankranti and her favourate Vehicle. The Lower part of the paper was used for figures of other gods and goddesses, which were painted in red, high blue and yellow colours. This painting was very popular during the period of Marathas. The Bharat Itihas Sanshodhar Mandal, Poona has several Sankranti pat patrika paintings. Pithoripat Painting:- It was used for performing puja. This painting is named after the ritual, pithori, which was performed on the new Moon Day of the month of Shravan. There is a mystical story in the ritual performed on the day. It is based on the story of Vasudev and Dewaki, in which Sixty-four yoginis were worshiped by married women. As per the story it is said that a woman lost her seven children soon after their birth of each of them and secured them back after performing the puja of sixty-four yoginis. The ritual symbolizes yoginis as protectors of young children from their untimely death. The artist related this story with the death of seven children of Vasudev and Dewaki of the popular epic Mahabharata. The artist also went on painting other events in the life of Lord Krishna. Although, the story used was from Mahabharata, the colours and attires painted in the Pithori painting were suited to the Maratha culture and tradition. 4. Illustrated Manuscripts: - During this period, the printing press was not used to create Literature. The Literature available was hand written, which was preserved in various Mathas, Monasteries of the Ramdasi, Mahanubhavi and Nath Sects. Under the Peshwas, the rich munotes.in

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258 Sadars began to enrich their private collections with hand- written books, which were illustrated by beautiful pictures of personalities from puranas and mythologies. Among such illustrated hand written books Pundalik and Vitttal Mahatmes, Shivlilamrit, Dyaneshwari and Sankranti were very popular. These illustrated manuscripts being related to religion became a popular form of the Maratha art and displayed the Maratha culture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 5. Miniature Paintings: -As illustrated manuscripts developed as a form of painting, the another form of painting came up in this period was miniature painting. In this painting, the different themes like Ragmala based on ragas of Hindustani classical music. This painting was done on a rectangular paper, on the top of the paper the name of the raga was written and the below of the name every facet of the raga was illustrated very beautifully with figures of God and goddesses. The next theme of the miniature painting was the Talmala, which was depicted as ragamala painting. It is said that a Dutch painter painted miniature paintings on Shivaji as well as Bajirao I, depicting them riding horses and leading their campaigns. Although, with decline of the Marathas, the miniature paintings were disappeared, some of the important pieces are still in the custody of the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal, Poona. 20.3 . MARATHA SCULPTURE The land of Maharashtra has the oldest sculptures like Karley and Bhajye caves which belonged to the second century B.C. and bore the influence of Shalivan and Buddhist sculptures. The cave sculptures carved at Ajanta belonged to the fifth century B. C. where as king Krishna II of Rastrakuta dynasty got carved the cave sculptures at Ellora. These sculptures are considered the finest specimen of sculptures in the country. Although no cave sculptures were carved during the reigns of the Shilahara and yadava kings, they got constructed a number of Hemadpanti style temples throughout their kingdoms. The Muslims, who ruled India later were iconoclasts and did not spare any such temples in the state, which led to discontinue the tradition of constructing the Hemadpanti temples. The sculpture as an art developed in the state particularly with the development of temples in which idols of different gods were installed. The free-standing sculptures are seen rarely in the country except the pillar capitals of Ashoka and the Yaksha Yakshini of the Shunga period. Maharashtra also followed the same type of free-standing sculptures under the period of Marathas. It was sculptured under Shivaji Yadwada, near Dhawad, Karnataka. It was carved in a big rock of 3x2-1/2 feet depicting Shivaji as negotiating with Malamma, the queen of Belavadi and the widow of Ishwar Prabhu. This sculpture is divided into two parts, in the upperpart Shivaji is shown riding horse while in the lower part depicted Shivaji and Malamma's meeting with Shivaji's foot soldiers as well as his favourite dog. In 1677-78, when Shivaji was on his Karnataka expedition, he visited Belavadi, which was thirty miles away from Belgaum. Belavadi then was under Ishwar Prabhu, who was no more, his widow Malamma clashed with Shivaji's foot soldiers and munotes.in

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259 impressed him with her bravery. Naturally, this sculpture commemorated meeting of Chhatrapati Shivaji with Malamma. Dr. Mate says that almost all Hemadpati temples of Yadavas were renovated under the period of Shivaji in order to bring out a new sculpture of Maratha style. One of such renovated temples under Shivaji was at Shingnapur which came to be known as Shambhu Mahadev temple. Dr. Mate further says that although it was renovated under Shivaji, its top was built in Peshwa period. The Maratha sculpture can be divided into three periods as 1. 1650 to 1720 the period from Shivaji to Balaji Vishwanath in which the Maratha sculpture got no encouragement. 2. 1720 to 1740 the period of Bajirao I. 3. 1740 to 1761 the period of Nana Saheb. During the periods of Bajirao and Nana Saheb, the rapid expansion of Maratha power took place which brought them into close contacts with various parts and various temples that encouraged them to construct various temples. Thus, the Marathas developed their own sculpture during this period that can be studied as under: - Bhuleshwar temple at Yavat:- Brahmendra Swami the spiritual guru of Bajirao I renovated this temple in Poona district and created a distinct Maratha sculpture in the field of ornaments, dress, decorations and the design of the spire of the temple. Vateshwar temple of Saswad:- This temple was built during the period of Peshwa, bore several battle scenes of the period. Although, the stones sculpted are worn out, they give certain ideas of the Maratha sculpture. Temples constructed by Ahilyabai Holkar have developed the Maratha sculpture. The entrances of those temples are sculptured with the figures of Maratha soldiers and Sardars. Along with this figure of elephants, monkies, peaco*cks and floral as well as geometrical designs also are carved prominently. Siddheshwar temple at Toke: -This temple in Ahmednagar district has a sculpture of two elephants fighting with each other. In the other scene, Peshwa Madhavrao I is shown sitting in his court or Darbar and consulting with his advisory. In the third scene on the outer wall the Draupadi swayamvar is sculpted with much skill and dexterity. Naturally, it is an important example of Maratha sculpture. Rock Memorials: This is one more important form of the Maratha sculpture, came to be known as ‘virgala’. It was constructed in the memory of brave soldiers, who laid their lives in various battle fields. It was carved on a rock of 3x4 feet at the village of the respective soldier. This rock memorial is divided into three parts as 1. the Lower part depicted the fallen hero in action. 2. The middle part depicted his journey to heaven and 3. The third scene depicted the fallen hero worshiping gods in the heaven. Thus, These scenes predominantly depicted in the Maratha style and Maratha sculpture. Wood Carvings: - This is one more important form of Maratha art and architecture found developed during the period of expansion of the munotes.in

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260 Maratha rule. Such art develops when peace and prosperity reigns the regime, but the Marathas never had such peaceful regime except few years. Although, this wood carving developed under the Marathas and were scenes on the walls of different mansions and temples but those scenes could not stand the onslaughts of enemies, fire and nature. There are some constructions which display such exquisite wood carving art but they are in dilapidated status or in total crumbling position. Thus, the Maratha Sculpture developed in various parts of the Kingdom. 20.4 MARATHA ARCHITECTURE There are several kinds of architectural traditions in Maharashtra. The first architectural tradition started by the Buddhist in second century B.C. at Karley and Bhaje caves near Poona. The second tradition in architecture of Maharashtra started by Rashtrakutas at Ajanta and Ellora caves in the fifth century B.C. The Chalukyas, the Shilaharas and Yadavas added much more to the existing architectural tradition by adopting Nagar or Bhumji type of architecture. This blended with the local conditions of Maharashtra and developed it into the popular Hemadpanthi style of architecture which came to be known as the Maratha architecture. It can be studied with reference to 1. Forts 2. Wadas 3. Gadhis and 4. Temples. These architectural monuments of Marathas are either destroyed by fire or the ravages of time. The palaces Like Ajinkya Tara at Satara and Shaniwarwada at Poona are the most prominent but they are in dilapidated conditions. Although, they are in the most neglected status, certainly give some idea of their style, design and the manner of their construction. During the period of Shivaji, several new forts were constructed as well as old forts were repaired while under the Peshwa’s new wadas and mansions were built and the towns like Toke were established. The Maratha architecture can be studied with the help of following points: - 1. Maratha Forts:- Chhatrapati Shivaji's name has been associated with almost all forts of Maharashtra. He gained them by various ways and measures as some by deliberate bribes whereas others by well-planned attacks. He constructed several forts on various and important hills strategically. Naturally, all these forts became the best examples of military architecture of Marathas. These forts proved the best means of protecting the Maratha Kingdom as said by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in his Adnyapatra. He further says that a kingdom without forts is like a person without soul. The forts constitute the strength of army and the wealth of the Kingdom. Without forts, the people in the Kingdom are left at the mercy of the invader. Fort is the place where the king can enjoy a sound sleep; hence, the king should undertake construction as well as repair of forts by himself. The fort should have a strong stone wall, which is known as rampart. Inside the wall there should be a trench or moat with full water to interrupt the entry of enemy and there should only on suspension bridge for the entry of selected people. Even there were other several methods to restrict the entry in the fort as very narrow and difficult steps, underground staircases, tunnels and trap doors. These munotes.in

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261 methods were used to make the entry totally inaccessible and keep all provisions, people, military and the king safety and secure. Although, almost all the forts of Marathas are in a dilapidated condition, their architectural remains show that the engineers who constructed them were well aware of the principles of military engineering. Thus, the Maratha architecture is very exhibited by the forts of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 2. Gadhis:-These were the structures constructed for residential purposes with the provision of defensive outworks. These structures were constructed on the upland in order to live with all civil amenities without any external interruptions. Such constructions were mainly undertaken during the medieval period, when there was no political stability in the country. Gadhis were compared with the manorial houses of the medieval English people. Although, Gadhis were like forts but they were very smaller and weaker than the forts. During the period of Marathas Gadhis became the places of various intrigues, romance and mysterious glamour. There were a number of Gadhis constructed during the latter half of the eighteenth century, which were generally square or rectangular in size. As a matter of fact, all gadhis depended in size and shape on the wealth, importance of the person constructing and occupying them. These gadhis were provided by a rampart of stone wall, which was generally five to seven feet wide. The rampart was provided with parapets which served as watch towers. There used to be several quarters for servants from within the rampart. It is said that the care was taken to store adequate arms, ammunition provisions and water to be used in any emergency or expected to stand a siege for some time. Thus, the gadhis formed a part of Maratha architecture. 3. Wadas:-Among the buildings, the Peshwas built during their rule, the residential mansions were the most popular structures, which came to be known as wadas. Their own residential building was popularly called as Shanvarwada, which was the most impressive structure in Poona. Bajirao, I constructed this wada in 1730 and was occupied formally in 1731. Since then, it became the center of politics and culture of the Maratha empire till its last in 1818. Shanvarwada was initially two storied constructions but it was raised to seven stories in the reigns of latter Peshwas. It was the only tallest building from the top of its people use to see the spire of the distant Alandi temple. This wada had five main gates as 1. Ganesh gate 2. Delhi gate 3. Mastani gate 4. Khadki gate and 5. Jambul gate. It had four fortified walls, out of them two were two hundred yards long, twenty feet high and the others were one hundred fifty yards long and twenty feet high. There were twenty bastions of stone and bricks, four at each corner and five in the center of the rampart. These bastions were manned with two hundred seventy-five armed guards. There were several Diwankhanas or big halls such as 1. Ganpati hall 2. Dance hall 3. Ivory hall 4. Hall of mirror 5. Hall of Bjirao 6. hall of Naranrao. In addition to these halls, there were several small rooms around which were assigned to each member of the ruling family. There were some other rooms assigned and occupied by various departments like 1. Treasury. 2. Pantry. 3. records. 4. munotes.in

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262 Library. 5. Armoury and 6. Medicine. The several gardens beautified it whereas numerous fountains made it the most elegant. It is said that in 1755, Nanasaheb constructed the Darbar hall on the eve of Ganpati celebration, hence it was called Ganpati hall. Due to the establishment of marble idol of Ganpati at a corner, it became a place of many state gathering as well as meeting place with dignitaries from foreign countries. This was the hall which had seen several days of ups and down and several diplomacies materializing. Unfortunately, this wada could not last long because it gutted into fire in February, 1827. In addition to Shanvarwada, there were several other wadas constructed during this period. In 1803 Bajirao II constructed a two story wada at Vishrambag. He also constructed two more buildings as one was a five story building in Shukrawar Peth whereas another structure was at Hirabag where Bajirao used to entertain his English guest. Despite, these structures the wadas of Raste, Haripant Phadke, Nana Phadnis, Naik-Joshi, Mehendale, Tulsibagwale, Biniwale, Gaikwad, Shinde and Holkar were very rich and impressive mansions of Poona and had added to the glory of the Maratha architecture. 4. Temples:- This was one more form of architecture developed during the period of Marathas. Among the temples constructed in and around Poona, the outstanding temples were only four. as 1. Parvati temple. 2. Tulsibag temple. 3. Belbag temple and 4. Omkareshwar temple. These temples were constructed as per the principles of Maratha architecture, which was the blending of Yadava and Nagar style of architecture. The Maratha style of temple architecture was a very simple plan of constructing a structure in which a square sanctum was linked by a rectangular portico. The facade of the portico had couple of pillars with beautiful arches. There was a big assembly hall, open on all sides. The temple structure had a beautiful pattern ceiling, hung multi coloured glass chandeliers with candle holders which gave the impression that the whole structure is made of glasses. The spire of the temple also was an important feature of the Maratha architecture, which was again blended with the south Indian models. There was a dipa-malas, a tapering pillar constructed with several suitable brackets which were used to climb the pillar to light the lamp put on the top of the same pillar. This was constructed in order to light the whole area of the temple. Generally, the temple was decorated with various stories of Puranas, epics and the battles fought by the Marathas. The pillars, walls and spire had sculptured images goods and goddesses, saints, soldiers and were painted brightly in suitable colours like red, green and yellow. Temples usually had a wall around it, to be secure enough to pilgrims visiting them. There used to be garden within the outside wall of every temple, which usually added to the beauty of the temple. Thus, this architectural form also developed during the period of Marathas. munotes.in

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263 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:- 1. Account for the Maratha art and architecture to be called the provincial art and architecture. 20.5 SUMMARY In Hinduism, idol worship has been an integral part of religion. There are several beautiful temples with large idols installed in spread throughout the country. The artisans of Shaiva, Vishnu, Buddhists and Jain ideology have shown specific skill and characteristics in their rendition of art and architecture. The temples at Rameshwar, Madurai, Tanjore and Kumbhakonam are the imposing and inspiring art and architecture of Dravidian people. But such exquisite pieces of art and architecture are not seen in Maharashtra. Although, Maharashtra had come under the rule of popular dynasties like the Chalukyas and Rastrakutas but their capital cities were outside of Maharashtra. These dynasties ruled Maharashtra from Badami and Kalyani respectively. There were the dynasties ruled Maharashtra were from Maharashtra only, who developed the art and architecture of constructing temples, which popularly came to be known as Hemadpanthi temples. Maharashtra is known for Sahyadri ranges and the beautiful caves carved in those ranges. Although, the Marathas have their distinctive style of art and architecture, that cannot be compared with the Mughals. Their temples, forts, mansions and other structures remained regional in scope and style for which several factors were responsible as:- The Marathas had no surplus production, they had no fertile land, they were forced to fight with formidable enemies often and other several reasons were there. It does not mean that they did not develop their art and architecture, Among the art they had wall paintings in which several painters like Gangaram Tambat, Dhanaji and Bapu Chitari were very popular. Not this much the Maratha sardars like Raste, Tulshibagwale, Vaidya and Khasgiwale used the services of James wells and Daniel the popular English painters. The Marathas were specialized in frescoes, in which various themes from Indian mythology like Dashavatara of Vishnu were painted on the walls on the eve of festivals like Deewali, Dassera or marriage. Along this the subjects like Ganpati, Rampanchayat, and other gods and goddesses were painted. The Maratha frescoes were seen on the walls of Jamod temple and wadas at various places, paintings in Ajanta and Ellora caves, which were done in red, blue and yellow colours. The Marathas also were very popular in patrika or roll paintings. Among them the Sankrantipat painting, the pithoripat painting, illustrated manuscripts, and miniature paintings were very popular. In Sankrantipat patrika the pictures of Ganesha, goddess Sankranti with other gods and goddesses were painted. In pithoripat, a story resembling to the death of seven children one after another of Vasudev and Dewaki was painted whereas in illustrated manuscripts hand written books like Shivlilamrit, Dnyaneshwari, Pundlik and Vittal Mahatmya were decorated and painted beautifully. In the miniature painting Ragamala and Talamala of various stages were painted on walls of wadas, palaces and temples: In munotes.in

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264 the same way, the Maratha sculpture was also popularly shown on the walls of temples. The most popular was the sculpture at Yadwada near Dharwad, Karnataka, in which the pictures of Shivaji, Queen Malamma of Belavadi and soldiers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were sculpted very beautifully. In addition to this sculptures on the temples of Bhuleshwar at Yavat, Vateshwar temple at Saswad, temples constructed by Ahilyabai Holkar, Shidheshwar temple at Toke are known as the master pieces in the sculptures. Rock memorials and wood carvings also were under taken under the Marathas. In the field of architecture, the Marathas had their own architecture developed in the form of forts, gadhis, wadas and temples. Ramchandrapant Amatya stressed on the importance of fort as soul of the Kingdom. Shivaji constructed as well as repaired several forts and developed a new and distinct Maratha architecture. Under the Peshwas, gadhis, wadas and temples were constructed at several places. Among them Shanwarwada was the exquisite piece of the Maratha architecture. In addition to this wada, Vishrambag wada, wada at Hirabag, Raste, Haripant Phadke, Nana Phadnis, Naik-Joshi, Mehendale, Biniwale, Gaikwad, Shinde and Holkar had their own wadas with peculiar features of the Maratha architecture. In the same way, temples were constructed as per the Maratha style of architecture. Among such temples, the Parvati temple, Tulsibag temple, Belbag temple and the Omkareshwar temple were the master pieces of the Maratha architecture. 20.6. QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Maratha art , wall paintings , frescoes and various roll paintings. Why was the Maratha art remained regional in scope and style ? 2. Give a brief account of the Maratha sculpture. 3. Examine the Maratha architecture with the help of forts constructed by Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Write a detailed note on the Maratha forts, wadas , gadhis and temple architecture 20.7. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Mate M. S. , Maratha Architecture 2. Gokhale B.G. , Poona in the Eighteenth Century 3. Kulkarni A. R. and Khare G.H. ,(ed) Marathyancha Itihas , vol .II (Marathi) 4. Bhave V. K. , Peshwekalin Maharastra (Marathi)  munotes.in